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5 Phase of
Neurodevelopment
Induction of Neural Plate
Three weeks after conception, the tissue that is
destined to develop into the human nervous
system becomes recognizable as the neural
plate—a small patch of ectodermal tissue on the
dorsal surface of the developing embryo.

The cells of the neural plate are often referred to

as embryonic stem cells. Stem cells are cells that
meet two specific criteria:
(1) They have an almost unlimited capacity for
self- renewal if maintained in an appropriate
cell culture
(2) They have the ability to develop into many
different kinds of cells
5 Phase of Neurodevelopment
Neural Proliferation
Proliferate (increase greatly in number) does not
occur simultaneously or equally in all parts of the
tube. Most cell division in the neural tube occurs in
the ventricular zone—the region adjacent to the
ventricle (the fluid-filled center of the tube).

The complex pattern of proliferation is in part controlled by

chemical signals from two organizer areas in the neural tube:
the floor plate, which runs along the midline of the ventral
surface of the tube, and the roof plate, which runs along the
midline of the dorsal surface of the tube
5 Phase of Neurodevelopment
Migration and Aggregation

Once cells have been created through cell division in the

ventricular zone of the neural tube, they migrate to the
appropriate target location where they are needed.
During this period of migration, the cells are still in an
immature form, lacking the processes (i.e., axons and
dendrites) that characterize mature neurons.

After migrating they must align themselves with other

developing neurons that have migrated to the same area to
form the structures of the nervous system. This process is
called aggregation
5 Phase of Neurodevelopment
Axon Growth and Synapse Formation
After cell migrate and aggregated into neural structure, axons
and dendrites begin to grow from them. For the nervous
system to function, these projections must grow to appropriate
targets
At each growing tip of an axon or dendrite is an
amoebalike structure called a growth cone, which
extends and retracts fingerlike cytoplasmic
extensions called filopodia

In synapse formation, a single neuron can grow an axon

on its own, but it takes coordinated activity in at least
two neurons to create a synapse between them.

Formation of new of synapse called synaptogenesis

5 Phase of Neurodevelopment
Neuron Death and Synapse Rearrangement
Neuron death (Apoptosis) is a normal and important part of
neurodevelopment. Many more neurons—about 50 percent
more—are produced than required, and large-scale neuron
death occurs in waves in various parts of the brain
throughout development.

During the period of cell death, neurons that have

established incorrect connections are particularly likely to
die. As they die, the space they leave vacant on postsynaptic
membranes is filled by the sprouting axon terminals of
surviving neurons. Thus, cell death results in a massive
rearrangement of synaptic connections.
Postnatal Cerebral Development in
Human Infants
Postnatal Growth of The Human Brain
The postnatal growth of the human brain seems to result from
three other kinds of growth: synaptogenesis, myelination
of axons, and increased branching of dendrites.

There is a general increase in synaptogenesis in the

human cortex shortly after birth, but there are
differences among the cortical regions.

Myelination increases the speed of axonal conduction,

and the myelination of various areas of the human
brain during development roughly parallels their
functional development, e.g.: Myelination of sensory
areas occurs in the first few months after birth, etc.
Postnatal Cerebral Development
in Human Infants
Development of The Prefrontal Cortex
The prefrontal cortex displays the most prolonged
period of development of any brain region. Its
development is believed to be largely responsible for
the course of human cognitive development, which
occurs over the same period In Piaget study of 7-month-old children. A small toy was
shown to an infant; then, as the child watched, it was
placed behind one of two screens, left or right. The result
is, most of the 7-month-old infants kept reaching for the
previously correct screen rather than the screen that
currently hid the toy. Children tend to make this
perseverative error between about 7 and 12 months, but
not thereafter (Diamond, 1985).

Perseveration is the tendency to continue making a

formerly correct response when it is currently incorrect.
Effects of Experience on Postnatal
Development of Neural Circuits
Critical vs Sensitive Periods
The effect of a given experience on development depends on
when it occurs during development (see Makinodan et al.,
2012).

In most cases, If it is absolutely essential (i.e., critical) for an

experience to occur within a particular interval to influence
development, the interval is called a critical period.

If an experience has a great effect on development when it

occurs during a particular interval but can still have weak
effects outside the interval, the interval is called a sensitive
period.

Although the term critical period is widely used, the vast

majority of experiential effects on development have been
shown to be sensitive periods.
Effects of Experience on Postnatal
Development of Neural Circuits
Competitive Nature of Experience and Neurodevelopment
Ocular Dominance Column

Many of selective manipulations of early

experience have revealed a competitive
aspect to the effects of experience on
neurodevelopment.
This aspect illustrated by the disruptive
effects of monocular deprivation on ocular
dominance columns in primary visual cortex
Depriving one eye of input for a few days early
in life has a lasting adverse effect on vision in
the deprived eye, but this does not happen if
the other eye is also blindfolded.
Effects of Experience on Postnatal
Development of Neural Circuits
Effects of Experience in Topographic Sensory Cortex Maps
3 Demonstration about the effect:

Roe and colleagues (1990), Typically, surgically attaching

the inputs of one sensory system to cortex that would
normally develop into the primary cortex of another system
leads that cortex to develop many, but not all,
characteristics typical of the newly attached system.

Knudsen and Brainard (1991), an owl that was

Several studies have shown that early music
raised wearing prisms that shifted its visual world
training influences the organization of human
23 degrees to the right had an auditory map that
cortex (see Miendlarzewska & Trost, 2014).
was also shifted 23 degrees to the right
Neuroplasticity in Adults
Prior to the early 1980s, brain development after the early
developmental period was seen as a downhill slope: Neurons
continually die throughout a person’s life, and it was assumed
that the lost cells are never replaced by new ones.
One currently popular theory is that
The first serious challenge to the assumption that neurogenesis adult hippocampal neurogenesis is
is restricted to early stages of development came with the important for pattern separation:
discovery of the growth of new neurons in the brains of adult pattern separation refers to our ability
birds to separate distinct percepts into
individual memories for storage
It is now established that neurons generated during adulthood
survive, become integrated into neural circuits, and begin to
conduct neural signals
Disorder of Neurodevelopment: Autism
Spectrum and Williams Syndrome
Autism Spectrum
ASD is almost always apparent before the age
of 3 and typically does not increase in severity
after that age

Two symptoms are considered to be core

symptoms because they are required for a
diagnosis:
(1) A reduced capacity for social
interaction and communication
(2) Restricted and repetitive patterns of
behavior, interests, or activities
Disorder of Neurodevelopment: Autism
Spectrum and Williams Syndrome
Autism Spectrum
75 percent of those with ASD are male, many
suffer from either an intellectual or learning
disability, and they are more likely to suffer
from epilepsy.

Older mothers are more likely to give birth to

a child with ASD, but the probability of a
young mother (under 30) giving ASD is
common

Between 10 and 30 percent of individuals

with ASD display some savant abilities (see
Dubischar-Krivec et al., 2014); conversely,
about 50 percent of savants are diagnosed
with ASD.
Disorder of Neurodevelopment: Autism
Spectrum and Williams Syndrome
Autism Spectrum
Neural Mechanism on ASD
These studies suggest differences in the
cerebellum, amygdala, and frontal cortex, but
there is little agreement on the nature of the
differences or how they develop.

One line of research on the neural

mechanisms: ASD spend less time than typical
looking at faces, particularly at the eyes, and
they remember faces less well

The underlying mechanism of ASD may not be

entirely neural. Indeed, there is substantial
interest in the role of glial activity in the
development of ASD
 Disorder of Neurodevelopment: Autism
Spectrum and Williams Syndrome
William’s Syndrome

Williams syndrome, like ASD, is a

neurodevelopmental disorder associated
with intellectual disability and with a
heterogeneous pattern of abilities and
disabilities (see Van Herwegen, 2015).

But, people with Williams syndrome are

sociable, empathetic, and talkative.

Williams syndrome occurs in

approximately 1 in 7,500 births
Disorder of Neurodevelopment: Autism
Spectrum and Williams Syndrome
William’s Syndrome
It is the language abilities of Williams syndrome patients
that have attracted the most attention. Although they
display a delay in language development and language
deficits in adulthood, their language skills are remarkable
considering their characteristically low IQs—which average
around 55.

They are often musically gifted (Lennoff et al., 1997).

Although most cannot learn to read music, some have
perfect or near-perfect pitch and an uncanny sense of
rhythm.

Another cognitive strength of individuals with Williams

syndrome is their near-typical ability to recognize faces—
although whether they process faces in a typical manner is
still a matter of debate
Disorder of Neurodevelopment: Autism
Spectrum and Williams Syndrome
William’s Syndrome
On the other hand, persons with Williams syndrome
display several serious cognitive deficits. For example, they
have severe attentional problems, spatial abilities are even
worse than those of people with comparable IQs

Williams syndrome is also associated with a variety of

health problems, including several involving the heart.
One heart disorder was found to result from a mutation in
a gene on chromosome 7 that controls the synthesis of
elastin, a protein that imparts elasticity to many organs
and tissues, including the heart. Research found that the
gene was absent from one of the two copies of
chromosome 7 in 95 percent of individuals with Williams
syndrome
Sebutkan dan Jelaskan gangguan yang
berkaitan dengan perkembangan
neurologis