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Computer Architecture

Bachelor of computer applications (Bangalore University)

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SOLUTION BANK

BCA 503T COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

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BCA503T: COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Total Teaching Hours: 60 No of Hours / Week: 04

Unit - I
DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS: Logic gates Boolean algebra, map simplification,
combinational circuits, flip-flop, sequential circuits. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND
DIGITAL FUNCTIONS: Digital integrated circuits, IC flip –flops and registers, decoders
and multiplexers, binary counters, shift registers, random –access memories (RAM) read –
only memories (ROM). [12 Hours]
Unit - II
DATA REPRESENTATION: Data types, fixed-point representation, floating – point
representation, other binary codes, error detection codes. DATA TRANSFER
OPERATIONS: Register Transfer, Memory Transfer and I/O Transfer. [12 Hours]

Unit – III
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION AND DESIGN: Instruction codes, computer
instruction, timing and control, execution and instruction, input-output and interrupt, design
of computer. [12 Hours]
Unit - IV
CENTRAL PROCESSOR ORGANIZATION: Processor bus organization, arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) instruction formats, addressing modes, data transfer and manipulation, program
control, microprocessor organization. [12 Hours]
Unit – V
INPUT-OUTPUT ORGANISATION: Peripheral devices. asynchronous data transfer, direct
memory access (DMA), priority interrupt, input –output processor (IOP). MEMORY
ORGANIZATION: Auxiliary memory, microcomputer memory hierarchy, associative
memory, virtual memory, cache memory. [12 Hours]

Text Books:
1. M. Morris Mano, Computer System, Architecture, 2nd Edition Prentice Hall of India.

Reference Books:
1. Heuring and Jordan, Computer systems design and Architecture, Pearson Edition
2. William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture, Pearson Education
3. Floyd, Digital Fundamentals,8th Edition, Pearson Education.
4. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Structured Computer Organization, 3rd Edition; Prentice Hall of
India.
5. David Patterson & Hennessy, Computer Organization & Design, Elsevier.

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BCA503T: COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

BLUE PRINT
Question paper pattern for theory has foursections :
Section – A :Contains 12 questions, out of which a student has to answer 10 questions. Each
question carries 2 marks ( 10 x 2 = 20 )
Section – B :Contains 8 questions, out of which a student has to answer 5 questions. Each
question carries 5 marks (5 x 5 = 25)
Section – C :Contains 5 full questions includes sub-question as (a) & (b). Student has to
answer 3 full questions. Each full question carries 15 marks(3 x 15 = 45 )
Section – D :Contains 2 questions, out of which a student has to answer 1 question. Each
question carries 10 marks ( 1 x 10 = 10 )

SECTION A SECTION B SECTION C SECTION D

UNIT CHAPTER
2 MARKS 5 MARKS 15 MARKS 10 MARKS

Digital Logic Circuits 2 1 0.5 0.5

I
Integrated Circuits 0.5
2 1
and Digital Functions 1
II Data Representation 2 1 0.5 -
Basic Computer 1 0.5
III Organization and 2 2
Design
Central Processor 1 0.5
IV 2 1
Organization
Input-Output 0.5 -
1 1
Organization
V
Memory 0.5 -
1 1
Organization
Total Questions 12 8 5 2
Answer any Answer any Answer any Answer any
10 5 3 1
Total Marks (100) 20 25 45 10

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SECTION – A ( 2 Marks)
UNIT-I
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. State and prove De-Morgan’s theorem
2. Draw the logic diagram of Boolean function using
NAND gates only.
3. What is decoder expansion?
4. What is unidirectional and bidirectional shift register

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

5. What is computer architecture?
6. State and prove De-Morgan’s theorem
7. Mention the different logic families of IC.
8. Distinguish between RAM and ROM.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

9. Write the symbol, logical expression and truth table of NAND gate.
10. Give the classification of integrated circuits.
11. Distinguish between RAM and ROM.
12. Define Multiplexer and Demultiplexer.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

13. Explain full adder.
14. Define universal gates with logic circuit.
15. State and prove De-Morgan’s theorem
16. Define Flip-Flop.
17. Why we use shift register?

[ TMAQ - Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions ]

18. Define half adder.
19. What is full subtractor.
20. Define parity checker and generator.
21. What is k-map?
22. What are the different types of flipflops.
23. Mention the types of shift registers.
24. Mention the types of RAM and ROM.
25. Mention the different types of computer architecture.

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SECTION – A ( 2 Marks)
UNIT-II
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Convert (736.4)8 into decimal and binary
2. What is self-complementing code and weighted code?

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. What is parity bit?
4. Write the BCD code for decimal number 8745.42(10)

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. What are the types of Binary codes?
6. Subtract 24 from 13 using 2’s complement method.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

7. Explain Hamming code.
8. Define Parity bit.

[ TMAQ - Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions ]

9. What self-complementary code?
10. What is true complement and radix-1 complement?
11. What is alphanumeric code?
12. Define floating point representation.

SECTION – A ( 2 Marks)
UNIT-III
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. What are the two types of control organization?
2. How many bits are needed to specify an address for a memory unit of 4096 words.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. What are the two types of control organization?
4. Define program counter.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. Define opcode and operand.
6. What is BUN instruction?

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[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

7. Explain BSA instruction.
8. Define Indirect Addressing Mode.

[ TMAQ - Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions ]

9. What is the difference between BUN and BSA instruction.
10. What is stored program concept?
11. What do you mean by instruction execution?
12. What is timing control?
13. Define Hardwired Control.

SECTION – A ( 2 Marks)
UNIT-IV
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. What is PSW?
2. What is an external interrupt? Give an example?

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. Mention the major components of CPU.
4. What is PSW?

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. What are the two types of computer architecture based on registers?
6. What are the different types of interrupts?

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

No Questions

[ TMAQ - Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions ]

7. What is RTL?
8. What do you mean by microoperations.
9. What is the difference between single and stack organization.
10. What is word?
11. What is the expansion of RISC and CISC.

SECTION – A ( 2 Marks)
UNIT-V
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. What are peripherals?
2. What is memory management system?

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[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. What is polling?
4. What is memory management system?

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. Define access time and transfer rate.
6. Define Baud rate.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

7. What is meant by Memory-Mapped I/O?
8. Define virtual memory
9. Define types of RAM.

[ TMAQ - Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions ]

10. Mention modes of transfer.
11. What is daisy chain priority?
12. What is cache memory?
13. Define Associate memory?

SECTION – B ( 5 Marks )
UNIT-I
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Simplify the Boolean function F(A,B,C,D)=∑(0,1,2,5,8,9,10) in both SOP and POS .
2. Design 4-to-1 multiplexer.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. Prove NAND and NOR gates as universal gates.
4. Explain PIPO shift register with a diagram.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. Explain the steps involved in the design of the sequential circuits.
6. Explain synchronous binary counter with logical diagram.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

7. Explain the steps involved in design of combinational circuit.
8. What is a K-map? Explain different types of K-maps.

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SECTION – B ( 5 Marks )
UNIT-II
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Define r and (r-1)’s complement. Represent -14 using integer representation stored in
an 8 bit register.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. Discuss the Parity generator and Parity checker.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

3. Discuss on error detection and correction codes briefly.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

4. NO Questions

SECTION – B ( 5 Marks )
UNIT-III
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. List the micro operations of ADD and ISZ instruction.
2. Explain with neat block diagram the input-output configuration.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. Explain the operation of interrupt cycle with a flow chart.
4. Explain input-output organization.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. Explain any five register reference instructions.
6. With a block diagram, explain how BSA instruction execution.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

7. Write a note on program counter and stack memory.
8. Explain any five register reference instructions
9. Explain timing signals.

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SECTION – B ( 5 Marks )
UNIT-IV
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Explain register stack with a neat block diagram.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. Explain the three types of CPU organization.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

3. Explain the addressing modes.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

4. Compare CICS and RISC processors.

SECTION – B ( 5 Marks )
UNIT-V
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. What is polling? Explain.
2. Explain Associative memory with a neat diagram.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. Explain the source initiated data transfer using handshaking with a block diagram and
timing diagram.
4. Write a note on memory hierarchy in a computer system.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. Explain DMA Controller with a block diagram.
6. Write a note on virtual memory.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

7. Write a note on cache memory.
8. What are the important characteristics of memory?

[ TMAQ - Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions ]

NOTE: ALL TMAQ questions for 5 marks and 10 marks will be given at the end please check

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SECTION –C( 15 Marks )

UNIT-I
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Design a octal to binary encoder
2. Explain with a neat diagram a 4-bit bidirectional shift register with parallel load.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. Define K map? Simplify the following Boolean function using K-map:

4. Define counter. With a neat diagram explain 4-bit synchronous binary counter.
5. Explain octal to binary encoder with diagram.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

6. Simplify F(ABCD)=∑m(1,3,7,11,15)+∑d(0,2,5) using K-map.
7. What is half adder? Design a half adder using only NAND gates.
8. Explain decoder expansion with the neat diagram.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

9. Simplify F(ABCD)=∑m(1,2,4,6,8,10,12,14) and draw a circuit diagram.

SECTION –C( 15 Marks )

UNIT-II
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Design the circuit for a 3-bit parity generator using an odd-parity system.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. Explain different binary codes.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

3. Discuss the parity generator and parity checker.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

4. What is parity bit? Explain in brief.

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SECTION –C( 15 Marks )

UNIT-III
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Explain with a neat flowchart the computer operation.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. Explain the design of basic computer with flow chart.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

3. No questions

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

4. Explain the types of program interrupts.
5. Explain I/O commands.

SECTION –C( 15 Marks )

UNIT-IV
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. What is addressing mode? Explain the different types of Addressing Modes with
example.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. What is addressing mode? Explain the different types of addressing modes with
examples

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

3. Explain common bus organization of basic computer with neat diagram.
4. Distinguish between FGI and FGO.
5. What is a sub-routine? Explain CAL and RETURN instructions.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

6. Explain common BUS organization of a Basic Computer
7. Explain different Addressing modes.

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SECTION –C( 15 Marks )

UNIT-V
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Explain source-initiated data transfer using hand shaking.
2. What is virtual memory? Explain address space and memory space in detail.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

3. Explain DMA controller with a block diagram/
4. Explain the working of Associative memory.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

5. Explain I/O interface unit with a neat diagram.
6. Write a note on isolated vs memory mapped I/O.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

7. Explain memory hierarchy.

SECTION –D( 10 Marks )

UNIT-I
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. What is binary counter? Explain a 4-bit synchronous counter with a neat block
diagram.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. Explain the block diagram of computer with I/O processors.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

3. Explain 4-bit shift register.
4. Explain the working of JK flipflop.
5. List the applications of EEPROM.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

6. Explain the working of RS flip-flop.
7. Explain 8 to 3 encoder.

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SECTION –D( 10 Marks )

UNIT-II
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
No questions

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

No questions

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

No questions

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

1. Discuss error detection and correction codes.

SECTION –D( 10 Marks )

UNIT-III
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
No questions

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

1. Explain the common bus system.

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

No questions

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

2. Explain direct address and indirect address modes.

SECTION –D( 10 Marks )

UNIT-IV
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. What are the major characteristics of RISC architecture?

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. Write a note on RISC and CISC.

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[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

3. Explain interrupt cycle with suitable example.

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

No questions

SECTION –D( 10 Marks )

UNIT-V
[ Nov / Dec 2015 ]
1. Explain the block diagram of computer with I/O processors.

[ Nov / Dec 2016 ]

2. Write a note on modes of data transfer

[ Nov / Dec 2017 ]

No questions

[ Nov / Dec 2018 ]

No questions

[ TMAQ - Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions ]

Unit – I
1. Explain any ten Boolean postulates.
2. Write the difference between Von Neuman and Harvard Architecture.
3. Explain JK-Master slave flipflop.
4. Explain the classification of IC Families.
5. Explain SISO in brief.

Unit – II
1. Explain floating point representation in brief.
2. Explain in brief Gray code.
3. What is Excess 3 code? Explain.
4. What is cyclic code? Explain.
5. Explain code conversion with an example.

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Unit – III
1. What is stored program organization? Explain.
2. Explain computer registers.
3. Explain instruction execution.
4. Explain computer instruction with an example.
5. Explain the design of the computer with a flowchart.

Unit – IV
1. Explain Bus organization with a neat diagram.
2. Explain the formats of instructions.
3. What is program interrupt? Explain.
4. Distinguish between RISC and CISC.
5. Explain the arithmetic and logic unit.

Unit – V
1. Give the difference between Isolated I/O vs Memory mapped I/O.
2. Explain strobe control with an example.
3. Explain DMA with a neat diagram.
4. Explain in brief Cache memory and Virtual memory.
5. Explain classification of memory. Explain in brief.

*****

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11111111111111111111111111111111111 SN - 664
V Semester B.C.A. Degree Examination, NovJDec. 2017
(CBCS) (F + R) (2016-17 and Onwards)
BCA 503 : COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 100

Instruction: Answerall Sections.

SECTION-A

I. Answer any ten questions. Each carries two marks. (10x2=20)

1) Write the symbol, logical expression and truth table of NAND gate.
2) Give the classification of integrated circuits.
3) Distinguish between RAM and ROM.
4) Define Multiplexer and Demultiplexer.
5) What are the types of binary codes?
6) Subtract 24(10)from 13(10)using 2's complement method.
7) Define opcode and operand.
8) What is BUN instruction?
9) What are the two types of computer architecture based on registers?
10) What are the different types of interrupts?
11) Define access time and transfer rate.
12), Define Baud rate.

SECTION-B

II. Answer any five questions. Each question carries five marks. (5x5=25)
13) Explain the steps involved in the design of the sequential circuits.
14) Explain synchronous binary counter with logic diagram.
15) Discuss on error detection and correction codes briefly.
16) Explain any five register reference instructions.
17) With a block diagram, explain how BSA instruction executes.
18) Explain the addressing modes.
19) Explain DMA controller with a block diagram.
20) Write a note on virtual memory.

p.T.a.

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SN-664 11111111111111111111111111111111111

SECTION-C

III. Answerany threequestions. Each question carries fifteen marks. (3x15=45)

21) a) Simplify F(ABCD) = l: m (1,3,7, 11, 15) + l:d (0, 2, 5) using K-map. 7
b) What is a half adder? Design a half adder using only NAND gates. 8
22) a) Explain decoder expansion with neat diagram. 7
b) Discuss the parity generator and parity checker. 8
23) a) Explain common bus organization of basic computer with neat diagram. 8
b) Distinguish between FGI and FGO. 7
24) a) What is a sub-routine? Explain CALL and RETURN instructions. 8
b) Explain the arithmetic logic shift with a neat diagram. 7
25) a) Explain I/O interface unit with a neat diagram. 8
b) Write a note on isolated vs memory mapped I/O. 7

SECTION-D

IV.Answerany one question. Question carries ten marks. (1x10=10)

26) a) Explain 4-bit shift register. 5
b) Explain the working of J-K flip-flop. 5
27) a) Explain interrupt cycle with suitable example. 6
b) List the applications of EEPROM. 4

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BCA503T – COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

2 MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. State and prove Demorgan’s Law.

1. The first theorem states that the compliment of the sum of Boolean expressions
is equal to the product of the compliments of the individual expression.
(x+y)’ = x’.y’
2. The second theorem states that the compliment of product of
Booleanexpressions is equal to sum of the compliment of the
individualexpressions.
(x.y)’ = x’+y’

2. What is Decoder expansion?

At times we may require decoder of a certain size while only small size decoders are
available. Then in order to obtain to require the size decoder, we have to combine
two or more available size decoders.
3. Convert (736.4)8 to decimal and binary.
(736.4)8 to decimal
= 7*82+3*81+6*80+4*8-1
=7*64+3*8+6*1+4*0.125
= 448+24+6+0.5 = 478.510
(736.4)8 = 478.510
(736.4)8 to Binary
= 7 3 6 . 4
111 011 110 . 100
(736.4)8 = 111011110.100(2)

4. What is unidirectional and bidirectional shift register?

Unidirectional: A register capable of shifting in one direction only is called
unidirectional shift register.
Bidirectional: A registers than can shift in both directions is called Bidirectional
shift register.

5. What is self-complementing code and weighted code ?

Weighted code :- Are those codes which obey the positional weighting principles.
Each position of number represents the specific weight.
Self-complementing code :- It is an unnatural BCD code. Sum of weights of
unnatural BCD codes is equal to 9. It is a self-complementing code. Self-
complementing codes provide the 9's complement of a decimal number, just by
interchanging 1's and 0's in its equivalent 2421 representation

6. What are the two types of control organization?

1. Hardwired control
2. Microprogrammed control

7. Explain Full adder?

Full adder is an arithmetic circuit block that can be used to add three bits to
produce a SUM and CARRY output.

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8. Define universal gates with logic circuits?

A universal gate is one of the logic gate which uses Boolean function
{0,1}. NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.

The circuit diagram and truth table of NAND gate:

The circuit diagram and truth

table of NOR gate:

9. Define types of RAM?

Types of RAM are:
1. Static RAM (SRAM): SRAM is that it retains data bits in its memory as long as
power is being supplied.
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): DRAM is most common kind of RAM for personal
computers and workstations.

10. Define Flip-Flop?

A flip flop is an electronic circuit with two stable states that can be used to store
binary data. The stored data can be changed by applying varying inputs. Flip-
flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used
in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.

11. Why we use shift register?

Shift registers are used for the storage or transfer of data in the form of binary
numbers and “shifts” the data out once every clock cycle,hence the name shift
register.

12. Explain Hamming code?

Hamming code is a set of error-correction code s that can be used to detect and
correct bit errors that can occur when computer data is moved or stored.

13. What is computer architecture?

The architectural design of a computer system is concerned with the specifications
of the various functional modules, such as processors and memories and structuring
them together into a computer system.

14. What are the two types of computer architecture based on registers?
1.Von Neumann architecture
2. Harvard architecture

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15. Mention the different families of IC.

a. Bipolar families
b. Metal Oxide Semiconductors(MOS) families

16. Distinguish between RAM and ROM.

RAM(Random access memory) ROM(Read only memory)

In RAM the contents are lost when the ROM is a special type of memory which
computer is switched off. can be read and contents of which it are
not lost even when the computer is
switched off.
Read and Write operations are Only read operation are performed on
performed on RAM and they are ROM and they are classified as :-
classified as :- a. Masked programmed
a. Static RAM b. User programmed
b. Dynamic RAM

17. What is parity bit?

A parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the total
number of 1’s either even or odd.

18. Write the BCD code of decimal number 8745.42(10)?

Decimal Number = 8 7 4 5 . 4 2
BCD Code = 1000 0111 0100 0101 . 0100 0010
Therefore, 8745.42 = 1000011101000101.01000010(BCD).

19. Define program counter?

The program counter (PC)holds the address of the next instruction to be read from
the memory after the current instruction is executed.

20. Write the symbol, logical expression and truth table of NAND gate?
The Logical symbol and truth table

Logical Expression:
Z=(X.Y)’

21. Give a classification of integrated circuits?

1. Small Scale Integration (SSI ) 4. Very-Large Scale Integration(VLSI)
2. Medium Scale Integration(MSI) 5. Super-Large Scale Integration(SLSI)
3. Large Scale Integration (LSI) 6. Ultra-Large Scale Integration(ULSI)

22. Define multiplexer and demultiplexer?

A multiplexer (MUX) is a device used to select a single line of input from multiple input
lines using control signals. In this diagram, D0 to D3 are input data lines and Y is the
output. The S0 and S1 bits tell the mux which one out of the 4 input lines will be
selected as output. So, if S0 = 0 and S1=0, then Y= D0,

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De-multiplexer(DMUX) is also a device with one input and multiple output lines. It is
used to send a signal to one of the many devices. The main difference between a
multiplexer and a de-multiplexer is that a multiplexer takes two or more signals and
encodes them on a wire, whereas a de-multiplexer does reverse to what the multiplexer
does.

23. what are the type of binary code?

1. Weighted Codes
2. Non-Weighted Codes
3. Alphanumeric Codes
24. Subtract 24 from 13 using 2’s complement method?
00001101 13
11101000 2’s complement of (-24)
---------------------------------------------------
10001011 Result (-11)
25. Explain BSA instruction?
BSA: (Branch and save return address)
This instruction is useful for branching to a position of the program called a
subroutine or producer. When executed, it stores the address of the next
instruction in sequence into a memory location specified by the effective address.

26. What is BUN instruction?

BUN (Branch unconditionally) his instruction transfers the program to the
instruction specifies by the effective address. The program counter PC holds the
address of the instruction to be read from memory in the text instruction cycle.
27. Define opcode and operand.
The operation code of an instruction is a group of bits that define operations such as
add, subtract, multiply, shift and complement.
Operand: An instruction code must not only specify the operation but also the
registers or the memory words.

28. Define indirect Address Mode.

When the bits in the second part of the instruction designate an address of a
memory word in which an address of the operand is found,it is called indirect
address mode.

29. How many bits are needed to specify an address for a memory until of 4096 words?
For a memory unit with 4096 words, weneed 12 bits to specify and address since
212 = 4096.

30. Mention the major components of CPU

a. Control Unit
b. Arithmetic Logical Unit
c. Immediate Access
31. What is PSW?
PSW in electronics means Program Status Word. A register, which is 32 bits in size
and holds all the information about the current state of an operation/program and
hence, it helps in proper program execution.

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32. What is an external interrupt? Give an example?

It is initiated by an external event. It is asynchronous with program (acts
independent of program). It depends on external condition which is independent
of program being executed at that point of time.
Eg:- Input /output devices

33. What are peripherals?

Input or output devices attached to the computer are also called Peripherals.
Peripherals are Electromechanical and electromagnetic devices of some
complexity.

34. What is memory management system?

Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating the computer
memory, assigning portions called blocks to various running programs to optimize
overall system performance.

35. What is meant by Memory-mapped I/O?

Memory mapped I/O is a way to exchange data and instructions between a CPU
and peripheral devices attached to it. Memory mapped IO is one where the
processor and the IO device share the same memory location(memory),i.e.,the
processor and IO devices are mapped using the memory address.

36. Define virtual memory?

A virtual memory system provides a mechanism for translating program
generated addresses into correct main memory locations.

37. What is Polling?

The software method used to identify the highest priority source is called as
Polling.in this there is one common branch address for all interrupts.

38. What are the different types of interrupts

1. External interrupts
2. Internal interrupts
3. Software interrupts

39. Define access time and transfer rate

Access time. The total time it takes the computer to read data from a storage device
such as computer memory, hard drive, CD-ROM or other mechanism. Computer
access time is commonly measured in nanoseconds or milliseconds and the lower the
access the time the better.Data rates are often measured in megabits (million bits)
or megabytes (million bytes) per second. These are usually abbreviated as Mbps
and MBps,respectively. Another term for data transfer rate is throughput.

40. Define Baud rate

Baud rate represents the number of times per second a signal (changing from zero
to one or one to zero) or symbol (the connection's voltage, frequency or phase) in a
communications channel changes state or varies. For example, a 2,400 Baud rate
means the channel is changing states up to 2,400 times per second.

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LONG QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS.

1. Prove NAND and NOR as universal gates.
NOR gate is a universal gate, meaning that any other gate can be represented as a
combination of NOR gates.

(a) Realizing NOT gate using NOR

(b) Realizing AND gate using NOR

(c) Realizing OR gate using NOR

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(d) Realizing NAND gate using NOR

A NAND gate is a universal gate, meaning that any other gate can be represented as
a combination of NAND gates.

(A) Realizing NOT gate using NAND

(B) Realizing AND gate using NAND

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(C) Realizing OR gate using NAND

(D) Realizing NOR gate using NAND

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2. Explain the steps involved in design of combinational circuit.

A combinational circuit is a connection of logic gates with a set of inputs and
outputs. The design of a combinational circuit starts from the outline of the
problem and ends in a logic circuit diagram.
• The problem is stated.
• The input and output variables are assigned letter symbols.
• The truth table that defines the relationship between inputs and outputs
is derived.
• The simplified Boolean functions for each output are obtained.
• The logic diagram is drawn.
The design of combination circuits can be demonstrated with two simple
examples of arithmetic circuits the Half Adder and the Full Adder.

3. What is K-map? Explain with an example.

Karnaugh map is also called as K Map. The Karnaugh map is a method of
simplifying Boolean algebra expressions. There are three types of K map are
• 2-variables map (22=4 cells)
• 3-variables map (23=8 cells)
• 4 variables map (24=16 cells)
The K-map is used to simplify the complex expression into simplex using
different groping. Eg., Pair, Quad, Hexa, Overlapping, Rolling etc.,
Ex:
Boolean function F(A,B,C,D) = Σ (0,1,2,5,8,9,10) in sum-of-products.

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4. Explain octal to binary encoder with a diagram.

An octal to binary encoder consists of eight input lines and three output lines. Each
input line corresponds to each octal digit and three outputs generate corresponding
binary code.
In encoders, it is to be assumed that only one input is active or has a value 1
at any given time otherwise the circuit has no meaning. The figure below shows the
logic symbol of octal to binary encoder along with its truth table.

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From the above table, the output Y2 becomes 1 if any of the digits D4 or D5 or D6
or D7 is one. Thus, we can write its expression as
Y2 = D4 + D5 + D6 + D7
Similarly, Y1 = D2 + D3 + D6 + D7 and
Y0 = D1 + D3 + D5 + D7
Also it is to be observed that D0 does not exist in any of the expressions so it is
considered as don’t care. From the above expressions, we can implement the octal
to binary encoder using set of OR gates as shown in figure below

There is ambiguity in the octal to binary encoder that when all the inputs are zero,
an output with all 0’s is generated. Also, when Do is 1, the output generated is zero.
This is a major problem in this type of encoder. This can be resolved by specifying
the condition that none of the inputs are active with an additional output

5. What is half adder? Design a half adder using only NAND gates
Half Adder is the digital circuit which can generate the result of the addition of two
1-bit numbers. It consists of two input terminals through which 1-bit numbers can

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be given for processing. After this, the half adder generates the sum of the numbers
and carry if present.

Half Adder using NAND Gates

The half adder can also be designed with the help of NAND gates. NAND gate is
considered as a universal gate. A universal gate can be used for designing of any
digital circuitry. It is always simple and efficient to use the minimum number of
gates in the designing process of our circuit. The minimum number of NAND gates
required to design half adder is 5.

The first NAND gate takes the inputs which are the two 1-bit numbers. The
resultant NAND operated inputs will be again given as input to 3- NAND gates
along with the original input. Out of these 3 NAND gates, 2-NAND gates will
generate the output which will be given as input to the NAND gate connected at the
end. The gate connected at the end will generate the sum bit. Out of the 3
considered NAND gates, the third NAND gate will generate the carry bit.

6. Design a 4-to-1 multiplexer

It is a logic circuit that switches digital data from several input lines onto a single
output line in a specified time sequence.
A multiplexer has several data input lines and a single output line. It also has data
select inputs which permit digital data on only one of the input to be switched to
the output lines.
4-to-1 Multiplexer
• A 4-to-1 multiplexer consists four data input lines as D0 to D3, two select lines as S0
and S1 and a single output line Y.
• The select lines S1 and S2 select one of the four input lines to connect the output
line.
• The particular input combination on select lines selects one of input (D0 through
D3) to the output.
• The figure below shows the block diagram of a 4-to-1 multiplexer in which the
multiplexer decodes the input through select line.

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Truth table :

• If S1=0 and S0=0 then Y = D0

• If S1= 0 and S0=1, the Y = D1
• If S1=1 and S0=0, then Y = D2
• If S1=1 and S0=1 the Y = D3
Therefore, Y = D3 S1 S0

7. Explain the working of R-S flip-flop.

In clocked R-S flip flop the appropriate levels applied to their inputs are blocked till the
receipt of pulse from an other source called clock. The flip flop changes state only when
clock pulse is applied depending upon the inputs.

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The basic circuit is shown below.

INPUTS OUTPUTS Mode of Effect on output

CLK S R X X Operation X

0 0 X X Hold or Idle No change

0 1 0 1 Reset Reset to 0
1 0 1 0 Set Set to 1
1 1 1 1 Forbidden or Should not be
Prohibited used

1. With inputs S=0 and R=0, the clock pulse has no effect on output X. The flip
flop is in the idle or hold mode.
2. With inputs S=0 and R=1, when the clock pulse is applied, the active high signal
on R resets or clears the flip flop to 0. Then flip flop is said to be in reset mode.
3. With inputs S=1 and R=0, when the clock pulse is applied, the active high signal
on S sets the flip flop to 1. Then flip flop is said to be in set mode.
4. With inputs S=1 and R=1, when the clock pulse is applied, the flip flop to 0.
The flip flop enters the prohibited or forbidden state. This sate cannot be used.

8. Explain 8 to 3 Encoder
The 8 to 3 Encoder or octal to Binary encoder consists of 8 inputs : Y7 to Y0 and 3
outputs : A2, A1 & A0. Each input line corresponds to each octal digit and three
outputs generate corresponding binary code.

The figure below shows the logic symbol of octal to binary encoder:

The truth table for 8 to 3 encoder is as follows :

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Logical expression for A2, A1 and A0 :

A2 = Y7 + Y6 + Y5 + Y4
A1 = Y7 + Y6 + Y3 + Y2
A0 = Y7 + Y5 + Y3 + Y1

The above two Boolean functions A2, A1 and A0 can be implemented using four
input OR gates :

9. Explain PIPO shift register with a diagram.

• The shift register, which allows parallel input (data is given separately to
each flip flop and in a simultaneous manner) and also produces a parallel
output is known as Parallel-In parallel-Out shift register.
• The circuit consists of four D flip-flops which are connected. The clear
(CLR) signal and clock signals are connected to all the 4 flip flops. In this
type of register, there are no interconnections between the individual flip-
flops since no serial shifting of the data is required. Data is given as input
separately for each flip flop and in the same way, output also collected
individually from each flip flop.

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10. Explain the working of full adder.

Full Adder is the adder which adds three inputs and produces two outputs. The first
two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry as C-IN. The output carry
is designated as C-OUT and the normal output is designated as S which is SUM.

Truth Table :

The logic diagram for Full Adder can be developed from the 2 logical expressions
for S (sum) Cout Carry.
S = AB’Cin + A’BC’in + ABC’in + ABCin
Cout = A’BCin + AB’Cin + ABC’in + ABCin

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11. Explain Parity checker and generator.

PARITY CHECKER
• When this device is used as even parity checker, the number of input bits
should always be even. When a parity error occurs, the ∑ even output goes
low and the ∑ odd goes high.
• When it is used as an odd parity checker, the number of input bits should
always be odd. When a parity error occurs, the ∑ odd output gets high.

Number of Inputs OUTPUTS

HIGH ∑Even ∑Odd
0,2,4,6,8 HIGH LOW
1,3,5,7,9 LOW HIGH

PARITY GENERATOR
• When this device is used as an even parity generator, the parity bit is taken
at the odd output because this output is a0 if there is an even number of
input bits, and it is a 1 if there is an odd number. When used an odd parity
generator, the parity bit is taken at the a 0 even output because it is a0 when
the number of inputs is odd.

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12. Explain error detection and correction code.

• Error detection codes :- are used to detect the error(s) present in the
received data (bit stream). These codes contain some bit(s), which are
included (appended) to the original bit stream. These codes detect the error,
if it is occurred during transmission of the original data (bit
stream).Example − Parity code, Hamming code.
• Error correction codes :- are used to correct the error(s) present in the
received data (bit stream) so that, we will get the original data. Error
correction codes also use the similar strategy of error detection codes.
Example − Hamming code.
Therefore, to detect and correct the errors, additional bit(s) are appended to the data
bits at the time of transmission.

• Parity Code:-It is easy to include (append) one parity bit either to the left of
MSB or to the right of LSB of original bit stream. There are two types of parity
codes, namely even parity code and odd parity code based on the type of parity
being chosen.
• Even Parity Code:-The value of even parity bit should be zero, if even number
of ones present in the binary code. Otherwise, it should be one. So that, even
number of ones present in even parity code. Even parity code contains the data
bits and even parity bit.
The following table shows the even parity codes corresponding to each 3-bit binary
code. Here, the even parity bit is included to the right of LSB of binary code.
Binary Even Parity Even Parity
Code bit Code

000 0 0000

001 1 0011

010 1 0101

011 0 0110

100 1 1001

101 0 1010

110 0 1100

111 1 1111

• Odd Parity Code The value of odd parity bit should be zero, if odd number of ones
present in the binary code. Otherwise, it should be one. So that, odd number of
ones present in odd parity code. Odd parity code contains the data bits and odd
parity bit.
The following table shows the odd parity codes corresponding to each 3-bit binary code.
Here, the odd parity bit is included to the right of LSB of binary code.

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13. What is a parity Bit? Explain in brief.

A parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the total
number of 1s either odd or even.
EVEN Parity ODD Parity
P BCD P BCD
0 0000 1 0000
1 0001 0 0001
1 0010 0 0010
0 0011 1 0011
1 0100 0 0100
0 0101 1 0101
0 0110 1 0110
1 0111 0 0111
1 1000 0 1000
0 1001 1 1001

1. The parity bit can be attached to the code at the beginning or the end,
depending on how the system is designed.
2. At the sending end, the message is applied to a parity generator, where the
required the required parity bit is generated.
3. The message, including the parity bit, is transmitted to its destination.
4. At the receiving end, all the incoming bits are applied to a parity checker that
checks the proper parity adopted (odd or even).
5. If the checked parity does not conform to the adopted parity, an error is
detected.

14. Explain the Common Bus system.

• The basic computer has eight registers, a memory unit, and a control unit . Paths
must be provided to transfer information from one register to another and between
memory and registers
• The number of wires will be excessive if connections are made between the outputs
of each register and the inputs of the other registers.
• A more efficient scheme for transferring information in a system with many
registers is to use a common bus.
• The connection of the registers and memory of the basic computer to a common bus
system is shown in Fig. below. The outputs of seven registers and memory are
connected to the common bus.
The specific output that is selected for the bus lines at any given time is determined
from the binary value of the selection variables S2, S1, and S0.
• The number along each output shows the decimal equivalent of the required binary
selection. For example, the number along the output of DR is 3.
• The 16-bit outputs of DR are placed on the bus lines when S2S1S0 = 011 since this is
the binary value of decimal 3.
• The lines from the common bus are connected to the inputs of each register and the
data inputs of the memory. The particular register whose LD (load) input is enabled
receives the data from the bus during the next clock pulse transition.

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• The memory receives the contents of the bus when its write input is activated. The
memory places its 16-bit output onto the bus when the read input is activated and
S2S1S0 = 111.
• Four registers, DR, AC, IR, and TR, have 16 bits each. Two registers, AR

• and PC, have 12 bits each since they hold a memory address. When the contents of
AR or PC are applied to the 16-bit common bus, the four most significant bits are
set to 0's.
• When AR or PC receive information from the bus, only the 12 least significant bits
are transferred into the register. The input register INPR and the output register
OUTR have 8 bits each and communicate with the eight least significant bits in the
bus.

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• INPR is connected to provide information to the bus but OUTR can only receive
information from the bus.
• This is because INPR receives a character from an input device which is then
transferred to AC. OUTR receives a character from AC and delivers it to an output
device. There is no transfer from OUTR to any of the other registers.
• The 16 lines of the common bus receive information from six registers and the
memory unit. The bus lines are connected to the inputs of six registers and the
memory. Five registers have three control inputs: LD (load), INR (increment), and
CLR (clear).
• This type of register is equivalent to a binary counter with parallel load and
synchronous clear. The increment operation is achieved by enabling the count input
of the counter. Two registers have only a LD input.
• The input data and output data of the memory are connected to the common bus,
but the memory address is connected to AR. Therefore, AR must always be used to
specify a memory address.
• By using a single register for the address, we eliminate the need for an address bus
that would have been needed otherwise. The content of any register can be specified
for the memory data input during a write operation. Similarly, any register can
receive the data from memory after a read operation except AC .
• The 16 inputs of AC come from an adder and logic circuit. This circuit has three
sets of inputs. One set of 16-bit inputs come from the outputs of AC . They are used
to implement register micro operations such as complement AC and shift AC .
• Another set of 16-bit inputs come from the data register DR. The inputs from DR
and AC are used for arithmetic and logic rnlcro operations, such as add DR to AC
or AND DR to AC.
• The result of an addition is transferred to AC and the end carry-out of the addition
is transferred to flip-flop E (extended AC bit). A third set of 8-bit inputs come from
the input register INPR.
• Note that the content of any register can be applied onto the bus and an operation
can be performed in the adder and logic circuit during the same clock cycle. The
clock transition at the end of the cycle transfers the content of the bus into the
designated destination register and the output of the adder and logic circuit into
AC.

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15. Explain direct and indirect addressing mode with an example.

Direct address mode:
The effective address is equal to the address part of the instruction. The operand resides in
memory and its address is given directly by the address field of the instruction. In a branch
type instruction, the address field specifies the actual branch address.

It consists of a 3bit opcode, a 12 bit address and a mode bit 1 which is 0 for direct address.
A direct address instruction is placed is address 22 in memory.
Indirect Address mode:
The address field of the instruction gives the address where the effective address is stored
in memory. Control fetches the instruction from memory and uses its address part to
access memory again to read the effective address. One bit of the instruction code can be
used to distinguish between a direct and an indirect address.
The instruction is placed in address 35. The mode bit 1 and so is indirect address. The
address part is binary of 300. The control goes to address 300 to find the address of the
operand. The operand found in address 1350 is then added to the content of AC.

16. Explain any five Memory reference instruction.

Memory Reference – These instructions refer to memory address as an operand. The other
operand is always accumulator. Specifies 12-bit address, 3-bit opcode (other than 111) and
1-bit addressing mode for direct and indirect addressing.

The set of instructions incorporated in16 bit IR register are:

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1. Arithmetic, logical and shift instructions (and, add, complement, circulate left,
right, etc)
2. To move information to and from memory (store the accumulator, load the
accumulator)
3. Program control instructions with status conditions (branch, skip)
4. Input output instructions (input character, output character)

Symbol Hexadecimal Code Description

AND 0xxx 8xxx And memory word to AC
ADD 1xxx 9xxx Add memory word to AC
LDA 2xxx Axxx Load memory word to AC
STA 3xxx Bxxx Store AC content in memory
BUN 4xxx Cxxx Branch Unconditionally
BSA 5xxx Dxxx Add memory word to AC
ISZ 6xxx Exxx Increment and skip if 0

17. What is addressing mode? Explain the different types of addressing modes.
The addressing mode gives or indicates a rule to identify the operands location.
Computers use addressing mode techniques for the purpose of accommodating the
following provisions.
• To give programming versatility to the user.
• To reduce the number of bits in the address field of the instruction.
• To provide flexibility for writing programs.
The various addressing modes available are:
• Implied mode:
In this mode the operands are specified implicitly in the definition of the
instruction. All register reference instructions that use an accumulator ar+
e implied mode instruction.
Ex: CMA
• Immediate mode:
The purpose of an address is to identify an operand value to be used in executing
the instruction. Sometimes the operand values is contained in the instruction
itself, this mode of operand specification is called immediate addressing mode.
Ex: MVI A, 45
• Register mode:
In this mode the operand are in registers which reside within the CPU. The
register is selected from the register field in the instruction.
Ex: MOV AX, BX
• Register indirect mode:
In this instruction, the address field specifies a processor register in the CPU
whose contents give the address of the operand in memory.
Ex: LXI H E000 ; memory address placed in processor register.

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18. Explain three types of CPU organization.

There are three types of CPU organizations are:
• Single accumulator organization.
• General register organization.
• Stack organization.

a. Single accumulator organization: All operations are performed with an implied

accumulator register. The instruction format uses one address field.
ADD X
Where X is the address of the operand. This causes
AC <- AC +M[X].
The accumulator contents are added to the memory location content whose
address is X and the result is stored in the accumulator.
b. General register organization: General register type computers employ two or
three address fields in their instruction format. Each address field may specify a
processor register or a memory word.
ADD R1, X
This operation specifies R1 <- R1 + M[X]
It has two address fields, one for register R1 and the other for the memory
address X.
c. Stack organization: Computers with stack organization have PUSH and POP
instructions which require an address field.
PUSH X
The instruction will push the word at address X to the top of the stack.

19. Differentiate between CISC and RISC.

CISC RISC
1. Large number of instructions 1. Fewer instructions
2. Emphasis is on hardware 2.Emphasis is on software
3. It includes multi-clock complex 3.It includes single-clock, reduced
instructions instruction only
4. Memory-to-memory: “LOAD” 4.Register to register: “LOAD” and
and “STORE” incorporated in “STORE” are independent
instructions instructions
5. Code size is small but complex. 5.Code size is large but simple. Low
High cycles per second cycles per second
6. Variable length instruction 6.Fixed length instruction format
format
7. Large variety of addressing 7.Few addressing modes
modes

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20. With a block diagram explain how BSA instruction executes .

Branch and Save Return Address
o This instruction is useful for branching to a portion of the program called a
subroutine or procedure.

o When executed, the BSA instruction stores the address of the next
instruction in sequence (which is available in PC) into a memory location
specified by the effective address.

o The effective address plus one is then transferred to PC to serve as the

address of the first instruction in the subroutine.

o This operation was specified with the following register transfer:

A numerical example that demonstrates how this instruction is used with
a subroutine is shown in Fig.

• The BSA instruction is assumed to be in memory at address 20.

• The I bit is 0 and the address part of the instruction has the binary equivalent of
135.
• After the fetch and decode phases, PC contains 21, which is the address of the
next instruction in the program (referred to as the return address). AR holds the
effective address 135.

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• This is shown in part (a) of the figure.

• The BSA instruction performs the following numerical operation:
• The result of this operation is shown in part (b) of the figure.
• The return address21 is stored in memory location 135 and control continues
with the subroutine program starting from address 136.
• The return to the original program (at address 21) is accomplished by
means of an indirect BUN instruction placed at the end of the subroutine.

21. Explain sub-routine? Explain CALL and RETURN instructions?

• A set of Instructions which are used repeatedly in a program can be referred to as
Subroutine. Only one copy of this Instruction is stored in the memory. When a
Subroutine is required it can be called many times during the Execution of a
Particular program. A call Subroutine Instruction calls the Subroutine. Care
Should be taken while returning a Subroutine as Subroutine can be called from a
different place from the memory.

• Unconditional Return instruction: RET is the instruction used to mark the end of
sub-routine. It has no parameter. After execution of this instruction program
control is transferred back to main program from where it had stopped. Value of
PC (Program Counter) is retrieved from the memory stack and value of SP (Stack
Pointer) is incremented by 2.

• Conditional Return instruction –By these instructions program control is

transferred back to main program and value of PC is popped from stack only if
condition is satisfied. There is no parameter for return instruction.
Unconditional Call instruction –CALL address is the format for unconditional call
instruction. After execution of this instruction program control is transferred to a
sub-routine whose starting address is specified in the instruction. Value of PC
(Program Counter) is transferred to the memory stack and value of SP (Stack
Pointer) is decremented by 2.

• Conditional Call instruction –In these instructions program control is transferred

to subroutine and value of PC is pushed into stack only if condition is satisfied.

22. Explain the arithmetic logic shift with neat diagram

The arithmetic, logic, and shift circuits can be combined into one ALU with
common selection variables. One stage of an arithmetic logic shift unit is shown in
Fig. 4-13. The subscript i designates a typical stage. Inputs A1 and B1 are applied to
both the arithmetic and logic units.

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• A particular microoperation is selected with inputs S1 and S0. A 4 x 1

multiplexer at the output chooses between an arithmetic output in E i and a
logic output in Hi. The data in the multiplexer are selected with inputs S3
and S2. The other two data inputs to the multiplexer receive inputs Ai - 1 for
the shift-right operation and Ai + 1 for the shift-left operation. Note that the
diagram shows just one typical stage. The circuit of Fig. 4-13 must be
repeated n times for an n-bit ALU. The output carry Ci + 1 of a given
arithmetic stage must be connected to the input carry Ci of the next stage in
sequence. The input carry to the first stage is the input carry C in, which
provides a selection variable for the arithmetic operations.
• The circuit whose one stage is specified in Fig. 4-13 provides eight arithmetic
operation, four logic operations, and two shift operations. Each operation is
selected with the five variables S3, S2, S1, S0, and Cin The input carry Cin is
used for selecting an arithmetic operation only.
• Table 4-B lists the 14 operations of the ALU. The first eight are arithmetic
operations and are selected with S3S2 = 00. The next four are logic
operations and are selected with S3S2 = 01. The input carry has no effect
during the logic operations and is marked with don't-care x's. The last two
operations are shift operations and are selected with S3S2 = 10 and 11. The
other three selection inputs have no effect on the shift.

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23. With a block diagram explain how BSA instruction executes

Branch and Save Return Address
This instruction is useful for branching to a portion of the program called a
subroutine or procedure.

When executed, the BSA instruction stores the address of the next instruction in
sequence (which is available in PC) into a memory location specified by the
effective address.

The effective address plus one is then transferred to PC to serve as the address of
the first instruction in the subroutine.

This operation was specified with the following register transfer: A numerical
example that demonstrates how this instruction is used with a subroutine

The BSA instruction is assumed to be in memory at address 20.

The I bit is 0 and the address part of the instruction has the binary equivalent of
135.
After the fetch and decode phases, PC contains 21, which is the address of the
next instruction in the program (referred to as the return address). AR holds the
effective address 135.
This is shown in part (a) of the figure.
The BSA instruction performs the following numerical operation:
The result of this operation is shown in part (b) of the figure.
➢ The return address21 is stored in memory location 135 and control continues
with the subroutine program starting from address 136.
➢ The return to the original program (at address 21) is accomplished by means
of an indirect BUN instruction placed at the end of the subroutine.

24. Explain with a neat block diagram the input-output configuration ?

Each quantity of information consists of 8 bits of an alphanumeric code. The
serial information from the Keyboard is shifted into the input register INPR
through the transmitter interface from the input register, the information is
shifted in parallel into the Accumulator.

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The terminal sends and receives serial information.

Each quantity of information has eight bits of an alphanumeric code.
The serial information from the keyboard is shifted into the input register INPR.
The serial information for the printer is stored in the output register OUTR.
These two registers communicate with a communication interface serially and
with the AC in parallel.
The input—output configuration is shown in Fig.

The input register INPR consists of eight bits and holds alphanumeric input
information.
The 1-bit input flag FGI is a control flip-flop.
The flag bit is set to 1 when new information is available in the input device and
is cleared to 0 when the information is accepted by the computer.
The output register OUTR works similarly but the direction of information flow
is reversed.
Initially, the output flag FGO is set to 1.
The computer checks the flag bit; if it is 1, the information from AC is
transferred in parallel to OUTR and FGO is cleared to 0.
The output device accepts the coded information, prints the corresponding
character, and when the operation is completed, it sets FGO to 1.
Input-Output Instructions:
Input and output instructions are needed for transferring information to and
from AC register, for checking the flag bits, and for controlling the interrupt
facility.
Input-output instructions have an operation code 1111 and are recognized by the
control when D7 = 1 and I = 1.
The remaining bits of the instruction specify the particular operation.

25. Explain the types of program interrupts.

Program interrupts: refers to the transfer of programs control from a currently
running program to another service program as a result of an external or internal
generated request.
Types of Interrupts:
There are three types of interrupts. They are:
(1) External interrupts
(2) Internal interrupts

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(3) Software interrupts

(1) External interrupts are initiated from

✓ Input-output devices(I/O devices)
✓ Timing devices
✓ Circuit monitoring power supply
✓ Any external source
External interrupts are caused by
✓ I/O device requesting transfer of data
✓ I/O device finishing transfer of data
✓ Elapsed time of an event (timeout-program in endless loop) Power failure
(2) Internals interrupts are also called Traps. They arise from illegal or erroneous
use of an instruction or date.
Interrupts caused by internal error conditions are
✓ Register overflow
✓ Attempt to divide by zero
✓ Invalid operation code
✓ Stack overflow
✓ Protection violation
(3) Software interrupt is initiated by executing an instruction . It is a special call
instruction that behaves like an interrupt. It can be used to initiate an interrupt
procedure at any desired point in the program.
26. What are the major characteristics of RISC architecture?
Characteristics of RISC :
1. It has relatively fewer instructions.
2. There are relatively fewer and simple addressing modes.
3. Memory access is limited only to load and store instructions.
4. There are a large number of registers in the CPU.
5. All operations are carried out using the registers of the CPU.
6. Instructions format is of fixed length.
7. Instruction is easily decodable.
8. Instruction execution takes place in a single clock cycle.
9. Control is hardwired and not microprogrammed.
10. There are few data types in hardware

27. Explain the operation of interrupt cycle with a flow chart.

The interrupt cycle is a hardware implementation of a branch and save return
address operation.
1. The return address may be stored in a processor register, a memory stack or a
specific memory location. Here, the memory location at address 0 is chosen to store
the return address.
2. Then address 1 is inserted into Program Counter(PC), to branch to location 1.
3. The IEN and R are cleared so that no other interruptions can occur until the
interrupt request from the flag has been serviced.

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Flowchart for Interrupt Cycle

There is an interrupt flip flop R.
• When R is 0, the computer goes through an instruction cycle.
• When R is 1, the computer goes through an interrupt cycle.
28. Write a note on RISC and CISC.

Complex Instruction Set Computer(CISC):

A computer with a large number of instructions is called Complex Instruction Set
Computer.
Features:
• The instructions provide direct manipulation of operands residing in
memory.
• A large number of instruction about 100 to 250 are provided.
• A large variety of addressing modes about 5 to 20 are provided.
Examples of CISC architecture are Digital Equipment Corporation VAX computer
and the IBM 370 computer.
Reduced Instruction Set Computer(RISC):
Computer that uses fewer instructions with simple constructs so that they can be
executed much faster within the CPU without having to use memory often is called
Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
Features:
• It has relatively fewer instructions.
• Memory access is limited only to load and store instructions.

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• There are a large number of registers in the CPU

RISC families include Alpha, ARC, ARM, AVR, MIPS, SPARC, PIC, SuperH.
29. Explain input-output instructions.

Input/Output – These instructions are for communication between computer and

outside environment. The IR(14 – 12) is 111 (differentiates it from memory
reference) and IR(15) is 1 (differentiates it from register reference instructions).
The rest 12 bits specify I/O operation.

Example –
IR register contains = 1111100000000000, i.e. INP after fetch and decode cycle we
find out that it is an input/output instruction for inputing character. Hence, INPUT
character from peripheral device.

The set of instructions incorporated in16 bit IR register are:

Symbol Hexadecimal Code Description

INP F800 Input character to AC
OUT F400 Output character from AC
SKI F200 Skip on input flag
SKO F100 Skip on output flag
IEN F080 Interrupt On

30. Explain input and output interface unit with neat diagram?
Input Output Interface provides a method for transferring information between
internal storage and external I/O devices. Peripherals connected to a computer need
special communication links for interfacing them with the central processing unit.
The purpose of communication link is to resolve the differences that exist between
the central computer and each peripheral.
The Major Differences are:-
• Peripherals are electro technical and electromagnetic devices and CPU and
memory are electronic devices. Therefore, a conversion of signal values may be
needed.
• The data transfer rate of peripherals is usually slower than the transfer rate of
CPU and consequently, a synchronization mechanism may be needed.
• Data codes and formats in the peripherals differ from the word format in the
CPU and memory.
• The operating modes of peripherals are different from each other and must be
controlled so as not to disturb the operation of other peripherals connected to
the CPU

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• To Resolve these differences, computer systems include special hardware

components between the CPU and Peripherals to supervises and synchronizes
all input and out transfers
These components are called Interface Units because they interface between the
processor bus and the peripheral devices.

I/O BUS and Interface Module: It defines the typical link between the processor
and several peripherals. The I/O Bus consists of data lines, address lines and control
lines. The I/O bus from the processor is attached to all peripherals interface. To
communicate with a particular device, the processor places a device address on
address lines. Each Interface decodes the address and control received from the I/O
bus, interprets them for peripherals and provides signals for the peripheral
controller. It is also synchronizing the data flow and supervises the transfer between
peripheral and processor. Each peripheral has its own controller.
For example, the printer controller controls the paper motion, the print timing. The
control lines are referred as I/O command. The commands are as following:
Control command- A control command is issued to activate the peripheral and to
inform it what to do.
Status command- A status command is used to test various status conditions in the
interface and the peripheral.
Data Output command- A data output command causes the interface to respond by
transferring data from the bus into one of its registers.
Data Input command- The data input command is the opposite of the data output.
In this case the interface receives on item of data from the peripheral and places it
in its buffer register. I/O Versus Memory Bus

31. Write a note on isolated vs memory mapped i/o?

Memory mapped I/O and Isolated I/O
As a CPU needs to communicate with the various memory and input-output devices
(I/O) as we know data between the processor and these devices flow with the help of
the system bus. There are three ways in which system bus can be allotted to them :
1. Separate set of address, control and data bus to I/O and memory.
2. Have common bus (data and address) for I/O and memory but separate
control lines.
3. Have common bus (data, address, and control) for I/O and memory.

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In first case it is simple because both have different set of address space and
instruction but require more buses.
Isolated I/O
Then we have Isolated I/O in which we Have common bus(data and address) for I/O
and memory but separate read and write control lines for I/O. So when CPU decode
instruction then if data is for I/O then it places the address on the address line and
set I/O read or write control line on due to which data transfer occurs between CPU
and I/O. As the address space of memory and I/O is isolated and the name is so. The
address for I/O here is called ports. Here we have different read-write instruction
for both I/O and memory.

Memory Mapped I/O

In this case every bus in common due to which the same set of instructions
work for memory and I/O. Hence we manipulate I/O same as memory and
both have same address space, due to which addressing capability of
memory become less because some part is occupied by the I/O.

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32. Differences between memory mapped I/O and isolated I/O –

Isolated I/O Memory Mapped I/O

Memory and I/O have separate address

Both have same address space
space

Due to addition of I/O addressable memory

All address can be used by the memory
become less for memory

Separate instruction control read and write Same instructions can control both I/O and
operation in I/O and Memory Memory

In this I/O address are called ports. Normal memory address are for both

More efficient due to separate buses Lesser efficient

Larger in size due to more buses Smaller in size

It is complex due to separate separate logic Simpler logic is used as I/O is also treated
is used to control both. as memory only.

33. Explain source initiated data transfer using handshaking

Source initiated Handshaking – When source initiates the data transfer process. It
consists of signals:
DATA VALID: if ON tells data on the data bus is valid otherwise invalid.
DATA ACCEPTED: if ON tells data is accepted otherwise not accepted.

(i) Source places data on the data bus and enable Data valid signal.
(ii) Destination accepts data from the data bus and enable Data accepted signal.
(iii) After this, disable Data valid signal means data on data bus is invalid now.
(iv) Disable Data accepted signal and the process ends.
Now there is surety that destination has read the data from the data bus through
data accepted signal. Signals can be seen as:

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34. What is polling? Explain.

The software method used to identify the highest priority source is called Polling.
There is one common branch address for all interrupts.
1. The program begins at the branch address and polls the interrupt sources in
sequence.
2. The order in which they are tested decides the priority of the interrupts.
3. First the highest priority source is tested. If its interrupt signal is on, control
branches to a service routine for this source. Otherwise, the next lower priority
source is tested and so on.
4. The initial service routine for all interrupts consists of a program that tests the
interrupt sources in sequence and branches to one of many possible service
routines.
5. The particular service routine reached belongs to the highest priority device
among all devices that interrupted the computer.

35. Explain Associative memory with a neat block diagram.

The associative memory has cells that have storage capability as well as logic
circuits for matching its content with an external argument. These memories are
used in applications where the search time is very critical and must be very short. A
memory unit accessed by content is called an associative memory or content
addressable memory(CAM)

Block diagram of associative memory

• Each word in memory is compared in parallel with the content of the

argument register.
• The words that match the bits of the argument register set a corresponding
bit in the match register.
• Those bits in the match register that have been set indicate that their
corresponding words have been matched.
• A sequential access to memory for those words, whose corresponding bits in
the match register have been set, causes reading of words in memory.

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• The key register provides a mask for choosing a particular field or key in the
argument word.
• Those bits in the argument that have 1’s in their corresponding position of
the key register are compared.
36. What are the important characteristics of memory?
Characteristics of memory:
1.Location 2.Capacity 3.Unit of transfer 4.Access Method 5.Performance
6.Physical type 7.Physical characteristics 8.Organization
1. Location:
It deals with location of the memory device in the computer system. There
are three possible locations:
• CPU : This is often in the form of CPU registers and small amount of cache.
• Internal or main: This is the main memory like RAM or ROM.The CPU can
directly access the main memory
• External or secondary: It comprises of secondary storage devices like hard
disks, magnetic tapes.

2. Capacity:
The capacity of any memory device is expressed in terms of:1) Word size
2)Number of words
• Word size: words are expressed in bytes(8 bits). A word can however mean
my number of bytes.
• Number of words: This specifies the number of words available in the
particular memory device.
3. Unit of transfer:
It is the maximum number of bits that can be read or written into the
memory.
4. Access Methods:
It is fundamental characteristics of memory devices. It is the sequence or order in
which memory can be accessed.
5. Performance
The performance of system is determined using three parameters:
• Access Time : In random access memories, it is the time taken by memory
to complete the read/write operation from the instant that an address is sent
to the memory.
• Memory cycle time: It is defined only for random access memories and is
the sum of the access time and the additional time required before the
second access can commence.
• Transfer rate: It is defined as the rate at which data can be transferred into
or out of a memory unit.
6. Physical rate:
Memory devices can be either semiconductor memory(like RAM) or magnetic
surface memory(Like hard disks).

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7. Physical Characteristics:
✓ Volatile/Non Volatile: If a memory devices continues hold data even if power
is turned off. The memory device is non-volatile else it is volatile.
8. Organizations:
✓ Erasable/Non-erasable: The memories in which data once programmed
cannot be erased are called Non-erasable memories. Memory device in which
data in the memory can be erased is called erasable memory.

37. Explain the block diagram of a computer with I/O processors.

CPU is the master while the IOP is a slave processor. The CPU performs the task of
initiating all operations.
The operations include
✓ Starting an I/O transfer
✓ Testing I/O status conditions needed for making decisions on various
I/O activities.
I/O instructions are executed in the IOP. The IOP asks for the attention of the CPU
by means of an interrupt. It also responds to CPU requests by placing a status word
in a prescribed location in memory to be examined by CPU program.
For an I/O operation execution, the CPU informs the IOP where to find the I/O
program and then leaves the transfer details to the IOP.
The instructions that are read from memory by an IOP are sometimes called
Commands, to distinguish them from instructions that are read by the CPU.
38. Write a note on cache memory.
The active portions of the program and data are placed in a fast small memory.
This reduces the average memory access time and hence the total execution time of
the program. This memory is called Cache memory. It is placed between the CPU
and the main memory. Performance of cache memory is frequently measured in
terms of a quantity called Hit ratio. Loops and subroutines tend to localize the
references to memory for fetching instruction. Reference to memory at any given
interval of time tend to be confined within a few localized areas in memory. This
phenomenon is known as the property of locality of reference.

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The basic operations of cache can be as follows:

1. When CPU wants to access memory, it first examines the cache.
a. If the word is found in the cache, it is read from this memory.
b. If the word is not found in the cache, the main memory is accessed.
2. A block of words containing the most recent accessed one is then transferred
from main memory to cache memory so that future references can find the
required words in cache.

39. Write a note on modes of data transfer

Modes of I/O Data Transfer
Data transfer between the central unit and I/O devices can be handled in generally
three types of modes which are given below:
1. Programmed I/O
2. Interrupt Initiated I/O
3. Direct Memory Access

Programmed I/O :
• Programmed I/O instructions are the result of I/O instructions written in
computer program. Each data item transfer is initiated by the instruction in
the program. Usually the program controls data transfer to and from CPU
and peripheral. Transferring data under programmed I/O requires constant
monitoring of the peripherals by the CPU.

Interrupt Initiated I/O

• In the programmed I/O method the CPU stays in the program loop until the
I/O unit indicates that it is ready for data transfer. This is time consuming
process because it keeps the processor busy needlessly.
This problem can be overcome by using interrupt initiated I/O. In this when the
interface determines that the peripheral is ready for data transfer, it generates an
interrupt. After receiving the interrupt signal, the CPU stops the task which it is
processing and service the I/O transfer and then returns back to its previous
processing task.

Direct Memory Access

• Removing the CPU from the path and letting the peripheral device manage
the memory buses directly would improve the speed of transfer. This
technique is known as DMA. In this, the interface transfer data to and from
the memory through memory bus. A DMA controller manages to transfer
data between peripherals and memory unit.
Many hardware systems use DMA such as disk drive controllers, graphic cards,
network cards and sound cards etc. It is also used for intra chip data transfer in
multicore processors. In DMA, CPU would initiate the transfer, do other operations

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while the transfer is in progress and receive an interrupt from the DMA controller
when the transfer has been completed.

Above figure shows block diagram of DMA

40. Write a note on DMA

Direct Memory Access (DMA):

In the Direct Memory Access (DMA) the interface transfer the data into and out of
the memory unit through the memory bus. The transfer of data between a fast
storage device such as magnetic disk and memory is often limited by the speed of
the CPU. Removing the CPU from the path and letting the peripheral device
manage the memory buses directly would improve the speed of transfer. This
transfer technique is called Direct Memory Access(DMA).

During the DMA transfer, the CPU is idle and has no control of the memory buses.
A DMA Controller takes over the buses to manage the transfer directly between the
I/O device and memory.

The CPU may be placed in an idle state in a variety of ways. One common method
extensively used in microprocessor is to disable the buses through special control
signals
such as:
◼ Bus Request (BR)
◼ Bus Grant (BG)
These two control signals in the CPU that facilitates the DMA transfer. The Bus
Request
(BR) input is used by the DMA controller to request the CPU. When this input is
active, theCPU terminates the execution of the current instruction and places the
address bus, data bus and read write lines into a high Impedance state. High
Impedance state means that the output is disconnected

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The CPU activates the Bus Grant (BG) output to inform the external DMA that the
Bus Request (BR) can now take control of the buses to conduct memory transfer
without processor. When the DMA terminates the transfer, it disables the Bus
Request (BR) line. The CPU disables the Bus Grant (BG), takes control of the buses
and return to its normal operation.
The transfer can be made in several ways that are:
i. DMA Burst
ii. Cycle Stealing
i) DMA Burst :- In DMA Burst transfer, a block sequence consisting of a number of
memory words is transferred in continuous burst while the DMA controller is
master
of the memory buses.
ii) Cycle Stealing :- Cycle stealing allows the DMA controller to transfer one data
word at a time, after which it must returns control of the buses to the CPU.

41. Explain DMA controller with a block diagram.

• DMA controller provides an interface between the bus and the input-output
devices. Although it transfers data without intervention of processor, it is
controlled by the processor. The processor initiates the DMA controller by
sending the starting address, Number of words in the data block and
direction of transfer of data .i.e. from I/O devices to the memory or from
main memory to I/O devices. More than one external device can be
connected to the DMA controller.
• DMA controller contains an address unit, for generating addresses and
selecting I/O device for transfer. It also contains the control unit and data
count for keeping counts of the number of blocks transferred and indicating
the direction of transfer of data. When the transfer is completed, DMA
informs the processor by raising an interrupt. The typical block diagram of
the DMA controller is shown in the figure below.

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• DMA controller has to share the bus with the processor to make the data
transfer. The device that holds the bus at a given time is called bus master.
When a transfer from I/O device to the memory or vice versa has to be
made, the processor stops the execution of the current program,
increments the program counter, moves data over stack then sends a DMA
select signal to DMA controller over the address bus. If the DMA controller
is free, it requests the control of bus from the processor by raising the bus
request signal. Processor grants the bus to the controller by raising the bus
grant signal, now DMA controller is the bus master. The processor initiates
the DMA controller by sending the memory addresses, number of blocks of
data to be transferred and direction of data transfer. After assigning the
data transfer task to the DMA controller, instead of waiting ideally till
completion of data transfer, the processor resumes the execution of the
program after retrieving instructions from the stack.

42. Explain the working of Associative memory,

The associative memory has cells that have storage capability as well as logic
circuits for matching its content with an external argument. These memories are
used in applications where the search time is very critical and must be very short. A
memory unit accessed by content is called an associative memory or content
addressable memory(CAM)

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• Each word in memory is compared in parallel with the content of the

argument register.
• The words that match the bits of the argument register set a corresponding
bit in the match register.
• Those bits in the match register that have been set indicate that their
corresponding words have been matched.
• A sequential access to memory for those words, whose corresponding bits in
the match register have been set, causes reading of words in memory.
• The key register provides a mask for choosing a particular field or key in the
argument word.
• Those bits in the argument that have 1’s in their corresponding position of
the key register are compared.
•
43. Explain memory hierarchy.
Memory Hierarchy is the combination of storage components that make up the
overall physical memory system of a computer. The various components are
typically arranged from fastest to the slowest in terms of their access time. So the
term ‘hierarchy’ is used. The goal of using hierarchy is to obtain the highest
possible access speed whole minimizing total cost of entire memory system. The
memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices used in a computer system
from smaller and faster cache memory to the slower high capacity auxiliary
memory.

Memory Hierarchy in a computer

The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized by hierarchy of
components. The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices contained
in a computer system from the slow Auxiliary Memory to fast Main Memory and to
smaller Cache memory.
Auxillary memory access time is generally 1000 times that of the main memory,
hence it is at the bottom of the hierarchy.
The main memory occupies the central position because it is equipped to
communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through
Input/output processor (I/O).

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When the program not residing in main memory is needed by the CPU, they are
brought in from auxiliary memory. Programs not currently needed in main
memory are transferred into auxiliary memory to provide space in main memory
for other programs that are currently in use.
The cache memory is used to store program data which is currently being executed
in the CPU. Approximate access time ratio between cache memory and main
memory is about 1 to 7~10.

44. Write a note on virtual memory?

virtual memory is a memory management capability of an operating system (OS)
that uses hardware and software to allow a computer to compensate for physical
memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from random access memory
(RAM) to disk storage. Virtual address space is increased using active memory in
RAM and inactive memory in hard disk drives (HDDs) to form contiguous
addresses that hold both the application and its data.

Virtual memory was developed at a time when physical memory -- the installed
RAM -- was expensive. Computers have a finite amount of RAM, so memory can
run out, especially when multiple programs run at the same time. A system using
virtual memory uses a section of the hard drive to emulate RAM. With virtual
memory, a system can load larger programs or multiple programs running at the
same time, allowing each one to operate as if it has infinite memory and without
having to purchase more RAM.

While copying virtual memory into physical memory, the OS divides memory into
pagefiles or swap files with a fixed number of addresses. Each page is stored on a
disk and when the page is needed, the OS copies it from the disk to main memory
and translates the virtual addresses into real addresses.

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