See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/267699510

Self-Management Procedures: A Comparison across the Autism

Spectrum

Article  in  Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilitites · June 2011

CITATIONS READS

39 2,642

2 authors:

Candice Southall David L. Gast

Piedmont College University of Georgia
4 PUBLICATIONS   99 CITATIONS    175 PUBLICATIONS   8,759 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Life After Academia View project

Ledford and Gast (2018) Single Case Research Methodology textbook View project

All content following this page was uploaded by David L. Gast on 25 November 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 2011, 46(2), 155–171
© Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities

Self-Management Procedures: A Comparison across the

Autism Spectrum
Candice M. Southall and David L. Gast
The University of Georgia

Abstract: Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have difficulty generalizing learned behavior to
varied environments with independence. This review of 24 empirical studies compares self-management as a
systematic procedure for modifying one’s own behavior, to increase target behaviors in students with either
autistic disorder (AD) or high-functioning autism/Asperger’s syndrome (HFA/AS). Twenty-four single subject
research studies are included in the review comparing methodological, demographic, procedural, and outcome
aspects of self-management studies between the two disorders under the umbrella of Pervasive Developmental
Disorder (PDD). Results show that self-management procedures, regardless of components and age of child, are
effective in teaching social, vocational, and communication skills, or decreasing restrictive and repetitive
patterns of behaviors for individuals with a PDD. General conclusions are made on how the procedures are used
differently across levels of functioning within the autism spectrum and PDD. This literature should encourage
researchers and practitioners to continue interventions using self-management procedures with this population
to broaden the research base and improve methodological adequacy.

Empirically based interventions geared toward must also be persistent in their search for
students with a disability can increase inde- research-based, generalizable strategies for
pendence and inclusion within schools and use in inclusive environments.
society (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
Federal mandates of least restrictive environ-
ments for students meeting eligibility criteria Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Brief History
for special education services have increased
inclusion of children within general educa- Kanner (1943) described a peculiar condition
tion alongside their peers. According to he found across a number of children in a
Campbell (2006), “As children with autism seminal clinical description (cited in Kanner,
continue to be educated alongside typically 1985). The first label of the disorder, infantile
developing children, professionals must con- autism, was presented in this report. Here
tinue to understand how best to educate a Kanner asserted that the 11 children observed
child with autism in an inclusive educational had been labeled as “Emotionally Disturbed”
setting” (p. 268). Students with an autism spec- or “Mentally Retarded” but displayed no char-
trum disorder (ASD) often have academic ca- acteristics of a slow learner nor fit the profile
pabilities equal to peers but require direct of emotional problems. The common charac-
instruction on behaviors to increase success teristics encompassed across the case studies
in mainstreamed environments. Empirically- included a desire for aloneness, sameness,
based strategies must be made available to stereotypy, and exhibited functional commu-
practitioners for use to increase desired be- nication and language delays (Rimland,
haviors by individuals with ASD. Researchers 1985). Based primarily on the work of Kanner
and others whom he influenced, the Ameri-
can Psychiatric Association included diagnos-
Correspondence concerning this article should
tic criteria for autistic disorder (AD) for the
be addressed to Candice M. Southall, Department first time in the third edition of the Diagnostic
of Communication Sciences and Special Education, and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
University of Georgia, 516 Aderhold Hall, Athens, (DSM-III, American Psychiatric Association,
GA 30602-7153. 1980).

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 155

 In 1944, an Austrian doctor, Hans Asperger, treatment approach would be more similar to
described children with what he called autistic interventions for children with AS. Since the
psychopathy (Wing, 1981). Although the chil- distinction between AD and AS remains con-
dren spoke at a normal age, Asperger found troversial, and some researchers assert that
impairment in social communication, similar AS is a milder form of AD along a continuum
to that described by Kanner. In 1981, Lorna (Campbell & Morgan, 1998), this review will
Wing’s translation of Asperger’s report be- refer to HFA as separate from AD and com-
came widely known in the U.S. Wing ex- bine HFA and AS simply as HFA/AS.
plained that although the two conditions de- Kanner (1943) purported that these chil-
scribed by Kanner and Asperger appeared dren within his seminal clinical description of
remarkably similar it was debated whether the children with autism were not “mentally re-
disorders were “varieties of the same under- tarded” but displayed poor performance ex-
lying abnormality or are separate entities” plained by motivational factors. While re-
(Wing, 1981, p. 115). Discrepancies between search over the years show below average full
clinical features based on Asperger’s work, as scale IQ for the nearly half of children with
translated by Wing, and Kanner’s work led to AD assessed through developmentally appro-
discussion of a separate Autism Spectrum Dis- priate tests, it is now accepted that although
order (ASD) subtype. cognition is a deficit for many people with
In 1994, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual autism, abilities are unusually scattered with
of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV; nonverbal skills more advanced than verbal
American Psychiatric Association, 1994) estab- skills, with motivation playing a integral role
lished Asperger syndrome (AS) as one of five in performance (Volkmar & Klin, 2005, p. 8).
pervasive developmental disorders (PDD). Ac- Definitions in the DSM-IV-TR (2000) classify-
cording to diagnostic criteria, AS is differenti- ing autism subtypes, AD and AS, are general
ated from AD in that there is no delay in guidelines of diagnosis for psychologists to
language or cognitive development, and no determine appropriate interventions and ed-
qualitative impairment in the communication ucational placement. It is critical to examine
domain. Witwer and Lecavalier (2008) empirically-based interventions that increase
showed that some children with AS, under motivation and learning in individuals with
diagnosis of the Autism Diagnostic Interview- ASD as well as differentiate effectiveness of
Revised (ADI-R) and Autism Diagnostic Ob- interventions for those identified as AD versus
servation Schedule (ADOS) displayed core HFA/AS.
symptoms of autism while also having high
full-scale intelligence quotients (IQ). Indeed,
Self-Management
approximately 33–59% of children with ASD
have cognitive deficits (⬍ 70 IQ) according to Combining empirically-based interventions
the Center for Disease Control (2007), how- such as differential reinforcement procedures
ever, some children diagnosed with AD ulti- and naturalistic approaches (Pivotal Response
mately display fewer autistic behaviors while Treatment [PRT], incidental teaching, etc.)
also having higher IQ and language skills has been shown to increase desired behaviors
(Ozonoff & Rogers, 2003). These children are of people with ASD (Koegel, L., Koegel, R.,
commonly referred to as having high-func- Harrower, & Carter, 1999; Ozonoff, Rogers, &
tioning autistic disorder (HFA) (Macintosh & Hendron, 2003; Scheuermann & Webber,
Dissanayake, 2004; Witwer & Lecavalier, 2008). 2002). Not only does motivation play into the
A commonality between AS and HFA are im- performance of people with ASD, these indi-
pairments in social interactions, restrictive viduals can learn or adopt strategies that will
and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests assist in their education, employment, and so-
and activities; and significant impairment in cial life with increased self-awareness (Myles &
social, occupational and other areas of func- Southwick, 1999). In accordance with PRT,
tioning (Thede & Coolidge, 2007). Students motivation is critical to learning by children
with HFA require a different educational with ASD, as is self-regulation and autonomy.
treatment approach than persons with AD Neurotypical children exhibit the ability to
due to differences in cognitive ability. This generalize newly learned behaviors to novel

156 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

situations and, unlike children with ASD, they including set-shifting, inhibition of responses,
are responsive to environmental cues that lead self-monitoring, and planning (Happe, Booth,
to their independence. Koegel et al. identify Charlton, & Hughes 2006). Self-reflection and
self-management as a pivotal area of interven- self-monitoring are specific deficits in execu-
tion for individuals with ASD. They assert that tive functioning by individuals on the autism
children on the autism spectrum can be spectrum. Also, many inappropriate behaviors
taught to discriminate between appropriate emitted by students with ASD are difficult to
and inappropriate behaviors through self- control because of poor outcomes (i.e., peer
management instructional programs. disapproval). Self-management can serve as
Self-management strategies are designed to a consequence by restricting stimulus condi-
teach individuals to engage in actions that tions for undesirable behavior. For example, a
change or maintain a particular behavior classic study by Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, and
(Shapiro, 1981). Within the self-management Frea (1992) used self-management with four
paradigm, a specific aspect of a behavior is male participants diagnosed with autism who
targeted and individuals are taught to record were unresponsive to teacher and parent ver-
the target behavior when it occurs (Cole & bal initiation. Each participant had receptive
Bambara, 1992). Self-management procedures and expressive language at or above the
typically comprise any combination of self- 3-year-old level and exhibited behavior diffi-
monitoring (also known as self-observation), culties (e.g., tantrums). A multiple baseline
self-recording, self-evaluation, and self-rein- design across settings and participants com-
forcement or self-punishment. Self-monitor- bined with a withdrawal for two participants
was used to evaluate the effects of self-obser-
ing requires the individual to determine the
vation, self-recording, and self-reinforcement.
occurrence or non-occurrence of target be-
Yes and no questions were created prior to the
haviors, which often include self-questioning.
study related to children’s regular activities.
For example, at the end of a given time pe-
Difficulty levels were controlled. During train-
riod, the student may ask, “Am I paying at-
ing in the clinic, researchers modeled appro-
tention?” A judgment about the occurrence
priate answers to questions and modeled how
or nonoccurrence of the target behavior is
to record the response on a wrist counter.
made as the individual records the answer
Researchers followed the same protocol for
determined from self-monitoring by physically
unacceptable answers to questions and mod-
marking these results on a data collection
eled not counting on the counter. The wrist
form, taking a token, or using a counting counter was worn by children during role-play
device (self-recording). The self-evaluation sessions. At this point, children were rein-
component combines goal setting and deter- forced after every correct response, i.e., CRF.
mining achievement of the goal. Lastly, self- Prompts ware faded after three hours of treat-
reinforcement, or self-punishment, is the con- ment. Self-management procedures were im-
tingent self-delivery of an earned reward, or plemented at school, in the community, and
with self-punishment, the self-withholding in home environments. Data were collected
of the reinforcer. This differential reinforce- during all sessions for appropriate and inap-
ment component is implemented to increase propriate responses, disruptive behavior, and
the likelihood of students engaging in the accuracy of self-recording. Interobserver
target behavior in the future under self-man- agreement data were collected throughout
agement procedures. the study. It was concluded that self-manage-
Cooper et al. (2007) identified a number of ment procedures were successful in increasing
advantages of self-management over other be- social responses by students with autism in
havioral interventions including (a) minimal varied environments as well as required mini-
teacher management along with more time mal teacher presence. Researchers also found
to teach, (b) greater generality of behavior a collateral reduction in disruptive behaviors
change by the student, and (c) application of due to possible increased communication
strategy in varied environments. Executive skills and a decreased aversion during social
function can be thought of as the cognitive interaction.
system that controls other cognitive processes Lee, Simpson, and Shogren (2007) pub-

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 157

lished a meta-analysis of the effects of self- Direct, and PsycINFO using the advanced
management for students with autism. This search method with key terms “self-manage-
report analyzed effect size of single subject ment,” “self-monitoring,” “self-recording,”
research on self-management procedures “self-reinforcement,” “autism,” and “Asperger
used to increase target behavior published be- syndrome.” The text was searched in each
tween 1992 and 2001. They found that self- article identified with related keywords. Sec-
management procedures have an empower- ondly, a hand search of common journals
ing effect on students’ ability to control publishing articles describing interventions
behavior. They concluded that self-manage- for the population of interest was conducted.
ment procedures will facilitate inclusion in These included the Journal of Applied Behavior
the general curriculum, as well as increase Analysis, Journal of Autism and Developmental
students’ self-determination, thus improving Disorders, Focus on Autism and Developmental Dis-
their quality of life. orders, Education and Training in Developmental
General education teachers report high ac- Disabilities, and Behavioral Disorders. The third
ceptability of self-management procedures, method for searching literature was an ances-
preferring student monitoring to teacher tral search of references cited in articles cho-
monitoring because it frees teachers to per- sen through electronic and hand search. In
form other instructional and related activities consideration of which studies to accept for
(Prater & Hogan, 1992). Agran, Snow, and this review, criteria included: (a) at least one
Swanner (1999), however, reported that self- participant in the study was identified as hav-
monitoring instruction is limited in applied ing a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD)
settings and is provided by only 35% of special including AD, AS, or pervasive developmental
educators. At this point, it is imperative that disorder—not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS);
self-management research be analyzed to de- (b) intervention included an independent
termine which dimensions of the interven- variable using a procedure that required a
tions were effective and with what types of student to take responsibility for behavior
individuals so educators will be to ascertain through any one or more self-monitoring,
the effectiveness of self-management proce- self-recording, and self-reinforcement proce-
dures with students on the autism spectrum. dures; (c) studies were published in a peer-
While it is not a common practice in edu- reviewed journal between January 1994 and
cational settings, experts in the area of ASD December 2008; and (d) a single-subject re-
advocate for use of self-management proce- search design (Gast, 2010) was used to evalu-
dures (Wilkinson, 2005). The primary pur- ate intervention effectiveness.
pose of this literature review is to examine
self-management procedures as an interven-
Results
tion for individuals ages 3–25 with ASD from
January 1994 to December 2008. This review The search resulted in 16 studies published in
compares demographics, procedures, and re- 11 different journals that targeted behaviors
sults of self-management interventions found of students with AD and eight studies from
in the literature between individuals with AD five different journals that targeted behaviors
and HFA/AS. Lastly, this review identifies di- of student with HFA/AS using self-manage-
mensions of self-management programs that ment procedures: Journal of Applied Behavior
need further research. Analysis (1), Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders (2), Behavioral Disorders (1), Behavioral
Interventions (3), Education and Training in De-
Method
velopmental Disabilities (1), Education and Train-
To identify empirical studies investigating the ing in Mental Retardation and Developmental Dis-
effectiveness of self-management procedures abilities (4), Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
for students with AD and HFA/AS published Disorders (1), Focus on Autism and Other Devel-
over the last 15 years, three types of search opmental Disabilities (2), Journal of Intellectual
methods were used (Wolery & Lane, 2010). and Developmental Disability (1), International
An electronic search was conducted through Journal of Disability (1), Journal of Development
ERIC, Academic Search Complete, Science and Education (1), Journal of Positive Behavior

158 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

TABLE 1

Descriptors of Self-Management Studies for Individuals with AD

Diagnosis/
Authors SS design Gender CA Functioning Setting Behavior

Agran et al. Multiple baseline 2/males 14 Autism ⫹ MIID General education % steps of
(2005) across 15 (NS) classroom directions
participants followed
Coyle & Cole A-B-A for two 3/males 11 Autism⫹ ID- Special education Time off-task
(2004) participants 9 DSM-IV classroom
A-B-A-C-A for 9
one
participant
Embregts A-B-A-B 1/male 16 PDD ⫹ ADHD Residential Setting Frequency of
(2002) ⫹ MIID-DSM Appropriate
IV behavior &
Inappropriate
behavior
Ganz & Changing 2/males 20 Autism⫹MoID- Self-contained # of tasks
Sigafoos Criterion 19 School eval. vocational completed in
(2005) Design across school 5 minutes
two
participants
Hughes et al. Multiple baseline 1/male 19 Autism⫹SID- Inclusive high % of correct
(2002) across (NS) school in hall responses
participants
Kern et al. Multiple baseline 1/male 14 Autism⫹6 Rehabilitation % time with
(1997) across settings grade levels hospital inappropriate
with a below-(NS) vocalizations
withdrawal
imbedded
within the first
setting.
Mancina et Multiple baseline 1/female 12 Autism⫹MoID- Special education % occurrence of
al. (2000) across settings School classroom vocalizations
eligibility
Newman et Multiple baseline 3/males 14 Autism⫹MID ASD after-school # transition
al. (1995) across 16 to MoID- program identified
participants 17 DSM-III-R
Newman et A-B-C-A-C across 3/males teen Autism⫹ID- Integrated school % appropriate
al. (1996) three Independent in separate conversation
participants evaluation room

Interventions (3), Journal of Developmental and mographic, procedural, and outcome vari-
Physical Disabilities (2), Autism: The International ables are examined for students with an ASD.
Journal of Research and Practice (1), and School
Psychology Quarterly (1). Tables 1 and 2 sum- Single Subject Research Methodology
marize pertinent descriptors of each study in- The merits of studies can be evaluated within
cluding: research design, participant gender, the context of single subject research designs.
chronological age, diagnosis, setting, and tar- Withdrawal designs provide a demonstration
get behavior. Five studies included individuals of experimental control by withdrawing an
with a disability other than AD or HFA/AS. intervention and returning to a previous base-
For these studies, research methodology, de- line condition showing a replication of effect

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 159

TABLE 1—(Continued)

Diagnosis/
Authors SS design Gender CA Functioning Setting Behavior

Newman et al. Multiple baseline 2/males 12 Autism⫹ ID- ASD after-school % intervals with
(1997) across DSM-IV program target behavior
participants 1/female 4 -out of seat
(possible 6 ASD Preschool -nail-flicking
noncontingent) Bedroom
Newman et al. Multiple baseline 2/males 6/PS Autism⫹MID- Evan and Nancy- Degree of
(2000) across 1/female 6 DSM-IV ASD school Dan variations in
participants -home individual
targeted
behaviors
Pierce & Multiple baseline 3/males 8 Autism⫹MoID Clinic room % of 10-s intervals
Schriebiman across 9 to SID- engaged in on-
(1994) behaviors 6 Outside task behavior &
replicated agency inappropriate
across three behavior
participants
Reinecke et al. A-B-A-B across 3/males 4 Autism⫹MID/ Preschool (NS) Social and play
(1999) three 4 MOID (NS) skills in the
participants 3 form of
“sharing”
Shabani et al. Multiple baseline 1/male 12 Autism ⫹ ID Univ. therapy % of intervals
(2001) across two ⫹ADHD-(NS) room rocking
behaviors.
Strain & Multiple baseline 3/males 4 Autism⫹NS- Integrated % of intervals
Kohler across 5 DSM-III preschool Small engaged in
(1994) participants 3 room Home (2) social
and settings. interaction
Todd & Reid Changing 3/ males 16 Autism⫹ID- TEACCH Distance
(2006) Criterion 20 DSM-IV classroom snowshoed/
Design across 15 walked/jogged
three
participants

Legend: PS ⫽ preschool; ID ⫽ intellectual disability; MID ⫽ mild intellectual disability; MoID ⫽ moderate
intellectual disability; SID ⫽ severe intellectual disability; DSM ⫽ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual; ADHD ⫽
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; NS ⫽ not specified; SM ⫽ self-management procedures

(Gast & Hammond, 2010). Four (17%) self- data across three or more tiers, then stagger-
management studies for individuals with ASD ing the introduction of the intervention across
used a withdrawal design. Changing criterion participants, behaviors, or conditions. Five
designs evaluate shaping behaviors that are studies (21%) used a multiple baseline across
currently in an individual’s repertoire provid- behaviors to evaluate experimental control.
ing evidence of experimental control through Three staggered intervention implementation
small increases toward a criterion (Gast & across settings (12.5%). Multiple baseline de-
Ledford, 2010). Changing criterion designs sign across participants was used in nine stud-
were used in three (12.5%) of the studies. The ies (37%).
most common designs to evaluate self-man-
agement treatment packages with individuals
Procedural Fidelity
with ASD were multiple baseline and multiple
probe designs. Their designs show experimen- Billingsly, White, and Munson (1980) intro-
tal control by first collecting pre-intervention duced the importance of measuring proce-

160 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

 TABLE 2

Descriptors of Self-Management Studies for individuals with HFA/AS

Diagnosis/
Authors SS design Gender CA Functioning Setting Behavior

Apple et al. Multiple baseline across 2/males 5 HFA/AS (NS) Integrated preschool # of compliments during 15 min.
(2005) students 1/female 4 during free play time interval
Barry & Singer Multiple baseline across 1/male 10 HFA (NS) Home % of intervals in which
(2001) behaviors (not replacement behaviors occur
concurrent)
Delano (2007) Multiple baseline across 1/male 12 AS DSM-IV-TR Conference room in Total words written, action
responses research office words, describing words,
revisions, quality rating
Loftin et al. Multiple baseline across 3/males 9 ASD DSM-IV Public ES lunch and % of intervals of initiation,
(2008) participants 10 ADOS recess periods interaction, and repetitive
10 motor behavior
Morrison et al. Multiple baseline across 1/female 11 AS and HFA Separate room within % of intervals with target
(2001) behaviors 3/males 10 DSM-IV school for free-time initiations of requests,
13 activity comments and shares
11
Mruzek et al. Changing criterion 2/males 9 ED⫹ADHD & Sp. Ed. classroom for Mean daily % of successful hours
(2007) design replicated 10 probable AS ASD in rural public (no rule violations)
across participants HFA (NS) elem. school
Palmen et al. Multiple baseline across 7/males 17–25 ASD with no Therapy room for % Correct questions during a
(2008) students 2/females cognitive baseline and training tutorial conversation and
impairments and Natural tutorial response efficiency
DSM-IV conversation locations
for SM
Wehmeyer et al. Multiple baseline across 1/male 13 HFA (NS) Public H.S. General Ed. Percent of intervals of
(2003) participants classroom inappropriate touching and
inappropriate verbalization

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum

Legend: PS ⫽ preschool; ID ⫽ intellectual disability; MID ⫽ mild intellectual disability; MoID ⫽ moderate intellectual disability; SID ⫽ severe intellectual disability;

/
DSM ⫽ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual; ADHD ⫽ Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; NS ⫽ not specified; SM ⫽ self-management procedures

161
dural fidelity. As interventions become more Newman et al., 1995; Newman, Buffington, &
complex and more teacher and practitioners Hemmes, 1996; Todd & Reid, 2006).
are conducting research in applied settings, Criteria for inclusion included participant
it is important that interventions are imple- diagnosis of autism with a cognitive impair-
mented as planned (Gast, 2010). Only 25% ment. From the 16 studies reviewed, seven
(n ⫽ 6) of the studies provided evidence of reported using criteria for diagnosis based a
procedural fidelity. Half of those took proce- version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Man-
dural fidelity data during all conditions ual (Coyle & Cole, 2004; Embregts et al., 2002;
(Delano, 2007; Loftin, Odom, & Lantz, 2008; Newman et al., 1995; Newman et al., 1997;
Newman, Buffington, & Hemmes, 1996); one Newman et al., 2000; Strain & Kohler, 1994;
study took procedural fidelity data during Todd & Reid, 2006). Fourteen of the 16 arti-
training (Agran et al., 2005); two looked at cles reported specifically that the participants
fidelity of procedures during the student self- had an intellectual disability but only Newman
management phase (Apple, Billingsley, & et al. (1996) reported that the students had a
Schwarz, 2005; Embregts, Didden, Huitink, & severe shortage of appropriate conversation
Schreuder, 2002). using short one word utterance and were non-
responsive to direct statements and questions,
and Kern et al. (1997) reported the partici-
Demographic Variables pant performing six or more grade levels be-
low.
Self-management intervention across gender, Ten participants with AD received self-man-
age, degree of cognitive impairment, and
agement intervention at a separate school or
training setting were analyzed. Tables 1 and 2
facility for children with a disability. Four stu-
provide a summary of these demographic
dents were taught self-management in a clinic
variables under “Gender,” “CA,” “Diagnosis/
and two children participated only at home.
Functioning,” and “Setting” for each study be-
Ten students were receiving the treatment in a
tween AD and HFA/AS respectively.
public school but received intervention in a
Autistic Disorder (AD). Thirty-two male par-
separate special education class. Five partici-
ticipants and three female students with AD
pants received treatment in an inclusive gen-
received an intervention with components
eral education environment with two of those
of self-management. The interventions using
participants’ intervention also conducted at
self-management procedures for this popula-
tion have been conducted across the spectrum home.
of age and grade levels. Within the preschool High-functioning autism/Asperger syndrome
age range of 3 to 6, four studies included (HFA/AS). In the eight studies, 20 male and
eight participants (Newman, Tutigian, Ryan, four female students with HFA/AS received
& Reinecke, 1997; Newman, Reinecke, & an intervention with components of self-man-
Meinberg, 2000; Reinecke, Newman, & Mein- agement. Interventions using self-manage-
berg, 1999; Strain & Kohler, 1994). Four stud- ment procedures for this group have been
ies included nine elementary age children, 6 conducted across the spectrum of age and
to 11 years old (Coyle & Cole, 2004; Newman grade levels. One study included three pre-
et al., 1997; Newman et al., 2000; Pierce & school children ages 4 to 5 years old (Apple et
Schreibman, 1994). Seven middle school aged al., 2005). Three studies used self manage-
students, 12 to 15 years old, were participants ment as treatment for a total of six elementary
in five different studies (Agran et al., 2005; school children ages 9 to 10 (Barry & Singer,
Embregts et al., 2002; Kern, Marder, Boyajian, 2001; Loftin et al., 2008; Mruzek, Cohen, &
Elliot, & McElhattan, 1997; Mancina, Tan- Smith, 2007) and two studies were carried out
kersley, Kamps, Kravits, & Parrett, 2000; New- with six middle school aged students ranging
man et al., 1997; Newman et al., 1995; Sha- from 10 to 13 years old (Delano, 2007; Morri-
bani, Wilder, & Flood, 2001) and four studies son, Garcia, Kamps, Parker, & Dunlap, 2001;
implemented self-management as an interven- Wehmeyer, Yeager, Bolding, Agran, & Hughes,
tion for eleven high school age adolescents 2003). Lastly, the study by Palmen, Didden,
(Ganz & Sigafoos, 2005; Hughes et al., 2002; and Arts (2008) implemented self-manage-

162 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

ment with nine young adults ranging in age two studies targeted communication skills.
from 17 to 25 years. Hughes et al. (2002) recorded the percentage
None of the individuals identified as opportunities per session in which a partici-
HFA/AS were identified as having a cognitive pant said, “Thank you,” to customers during a
impairment and only three reported using cookie sales event, while Newman et al. (1996)
criteria for diagnosis based a version of the provided treatment to increase appropriate
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (Delano, conversation. Finally, four studies focused on
2007; Loftin et al., 2008; Palmen et al. 2008) to school/vocational skills including off-task be-
identify the student with a PDD. The settings havior (Coyle & Cole, 2004), following direc-
for intervention varied between inclusive class- tions (Agran et al., 2005), task completion
rooms (Apple et al., 2005; Loftin et al.; Weh- (Ganz & Sigafoos, 2005), transitioning (New-
meyer et al., 2003), separate room for therapy man et al., 1995), and daily living skills (Pierce
(Delano; Morrison et al., 2001; Palmen et al.), & Schreibman, 1994).
a special education class (Mruzek et al., 2007), Self-management packages included self-
and in the home (Barry & Singer, 2001). monitoring, self-recording, and self-reinforce-
ment in five of the 16 studies (40%). Five
studies did not include self-recording but only
Procedural Variables
required students to self-monitor and self-
Procedural variables analyzed included com- reinforce. Agran et al. (2005), Kern et al.
ponents of single subject design, procedural (1997), and Newman et al. (1996) excluded
fidelity, data collection, self-management self-reinforcement using solely self-monitor-
packages, support materials used, and tar- ing and self-recording. Lastly, Hughes et al.
geted autistic-like behaviors. While Tables 1 (2002), required participants to self-monitor
and 2 show single subject design and depen- alone. Seven studies incorporated a token
dent measures, Tables 3 and 4 display target economy as reinforcement. Coyle and Cole
skill domain and self-management package (2004) and Embregts et al. (2002) used video
components within each study. Common to enhance the procedure through video
components of most self-management pack- modeling desired behavior and video self-
ages included: (a) a timer to alert a student recording respectively. Two studies used peer
to self-assess, (b) a self-recording form for a training as a part of social skill interven-
student to document the assessment, and (c) a tion while the participants self-monitored
desired reward as reinforcement to maintain (Reinecke et al., 1999; Shabani et al., 2001).
the behavior. As these materials are typical for Pictures were incorporated as prompts in
most self-management programs, they are not Coyle and Cole (2004) and Pierce and
analyzed across studies. Although each study Schreibman (1994). No studies of self-man-
included an independent variable requiring a agement within the AD population used con-
student to participate in the management of tracts as a component of the package.
his/her behavior as part of the intervention, Data were systematically collected during
several other components were part of treat- each study with half (n ⫽ 8) using an interval
ment packages. recording procedure. Seven studies (44%)
AD. Target behaviors to be modified and used event recording procedures to measure
maintained using self-management have been behavior change. Kern et al. (1997) used total
classified into four categories for this review duration of occurrence recording procedure
based on prominent characteristics of AD. to calculate percent of time a student engaged
Four studies addressed self-management to in inappropriate vocalizations. In self-manage-
decrease restrictive, repetitive, and stereo- ment programs, interventionists often collect
typed behavior patterns (Embregts et al., data on dependent measures differently than
2002; Kern et al., 1997; Mancina et al., 2000; student self-recording. Eight researchers (50%)
Newman et al., 1997; Shabani et al., 2001). used a different method of data collection. Of
Five studies attempted to increase social skills those that used the same recording proce-
including play and social interaction (New- dures five (31%) used event recording and
man et al., 2000; Reinecke et al., 1999; Strain three (19%) quantified behavior changes with
& Kohler, 1994; Todd & Reid, 2006). Only interval recording procedures. Agran et al.

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 163

TABLE 3

Comparison of Self-Management Treatment Package and Skill Addressed–AD

Self-Management Components Behavior Addressed

Restrictive Behavior Patterns

School/Vocational Skills
Self-reinforcement

Communication
Token Economy
Self-monitoring

Peer Training
Self-initiation
Self-recording

Social Skills
Contract

Pictures

Video
Agran et al.
(2005) x x x
Coyle & Cole
(2004) x x x x x x
Embregts (2002) x x x x x x
Ganz & Sigafoos
(2005) x x x x x
Hughes et al.
(2002) x x
Kern et al.
(1997) x x x x
Mancina et al.
(2000) x x x x x
Newman et al.
(1995) x x x x
Newman et al.
(1996) x x x
Newman et al.
(1997) x x x x
Newman et al.
(2000) x x x x
Pierce &
Schriebiman
(1994) x x x x x
Reinecke et al.
(1999) x x x x x
Shabani et al.
(2001) x x x x
Strain & Kohler
(1994) x x x x x
Todd & Reid
(2006) x x x x x
Percentage 100% 56.25% 75% 25% 12.5% 0% 43.75% 13.3% 12.25% 25% 31.25% 12.5% 31.25%

(2005) and Hughes et al. (2002) did not in- lected using a 15 s partial interval recording
corporate self-recording into their self-man- procedure. Kern et al. measured treatment
agement treatment package. Embregts et al. effects using total duration recording of vo-
(2002) required students to record their be- calization. Three studies evaluated behavior
havior using a 20 s to 30 s whole interval change with interval recording while students
recording procedure, while the data were col- self-recorded frequency of the target behavior

164 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

TABLE 4

Comparison of Self-Management Treatment Package and Skill Addressed–HFA/AS

Self-Management Components Behavior Addressed

Restrictive Behavior Patterns

School/Vocational Skills
Self-reinforcement

Communication
Token Economy
Self-monitoring

Peer Training
Self-initiation
Self-recording

Social Skills
Contract

Pictures

Video
Apple et al.
(2005) x x x x x
Barry & Singer
(2001) x x x x x
Delano (2007) x x x
Loftin et al.
(2008) x x x x x
Morrison et al.
(2001) x x x x x x
Mruzek et al.
(2007) x x x x x
Palmen et al.
(2008) x x x x
Wehmeyer et al.
(2003) x x x x x
Percentage 100% 75% 87.5% 12.5% 25% 25% 12.5% 25% 12.5% 12.5% 50% 12.5% 25%

using event recording (Newman et al., 1996; reinforcement. Delano (2007) was the only
Pierce & Schriebiman, 1994; Reinecke et al., study that did not incorporate a self-recording
1999). component; rather here the student moni-
HFA/AS. Restricted interests, social skills, tored his following of structured editing pro-
communication, and academic skills were the cess for writing and self-reinforced upon com-
four behavior categories targeted for those pletion. Other materials were incorporated
with HFA/AS characteristics. The majority of into the self-management packages. Mruzek
the studies using self-management for stu- et al. (2007) and Barry and Singer (2001)
dents with HFA/AS targeted social skills in- utilized a contract as a goal-setting component
cluding complimenting (Apple et al., 2005), of self-management. Two of the studies re-
interacting appropriately with a baby sibling viewed included simple visual cues to self-
(Barry & Singer, 2001), initiating (Morrison et manage a behavior (Newman et al., 1996; Pal-
al., 2001), and decreasing hugging (Weh- men et al., 2008), while Morrison et al. (2001)
meyer, 2003). Loftin et al. (2008) addressed used games and social skills charts to guide
restrictive behavior patterns (e.g., rocking) the students as a group and laminated moni-
and Palmen et al. (2008) addressed commu- toring charts on which students self-recorded.
nication. Delano (2007) and Mruzek et al. Similarly, Palmen et al. provided a flow chart
(2007) addressed school related skills. to guide student conversations and a simple
Seven of the eight investigations (88%) chart to self-record positive and negative at-
used all three components of self-manage- tempts of questioning in the conversation.
ment: self-monitoring, self recording, and self- Two studies included peer training to support

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 165

the self-management program (Loftin et al., et al. was a game format with individuals using
2008; Morrison et al.). a flowchart to self-observe and move tokens
Researcher dependent variable measure- on a game board as a form of self-recording.
ment systems were the same as students with Intervention could not be staggered across
HFA/AS self-recording in three (31%) of the participants as they were all involved in the
eight studies (Apple et al., 2005; Delano, 2007; intervention simultaneously. Although the
Mruzek et al., 2007). The remaining studies self-management intervention was replicated
required students to self-record using event across two more groups of three, it was con-
recording where the researcher used interval sidered a nonconcurrent multiple baseline
recording procedures. decreasing the internal validity (Gast, 2010).
Palmen et al. was the only study on self-
management for adolescents with HFA/AS.
Outcomes
All other studies involved 4- year-old to 13-
Self-management procedures were successful year-old children with HFA/AS.
in increasing target behaviors for students Five of the eight studies using self-manage-
with ASD. ment to change behavior in HFA/AS reported
AD. Self-management procedures in- social validity. Loftin et al. (2008) used IEP’s
creased target behaviors for students with AD. to determine target behaviors; teachers and
A total of 16 research studies met the original parents gave positive reviews of the goals of
search criteria. All 35 participants using a ver- treatment, procedures and outcomes. Apple
sion of self-management improved and main- et al. (2005) collected social validity informa-
tained targeted skills. Four of the studies for- tion using parent and teacher reports indicat-
mally collected social validity (Wolf, 1978) ing a perception of increase in general social
data using questionnaires and rating forms. skills by three of four participants and gener-
The participant with AD in Hughes et al. alization to nontraining settings after self-
(2002) made noticeable significant gains in management to increase complement-giving
saying “thank you” to customers using self- behaviors. Palmen et al. (2008) reported self-
management as perceived by a peer and management as a socially valid intervention to
teacher. Both peer and teacher also con- increase conversation skills in adolescents
firmed that they enjoyed being around the with HFA/AS. Both student participants and
student with AD more after the positive effects coaches found the training effective and ac-
of self-management. Kern et al. (1997) re- ceptable, while meaningful increases in con-
ported that school staff perceived self-manage- versation generalized to the natural contexts.
ment as easy to implement and effective in a Wehmeyer et al. (2003) stated that teacher
short duration of time while not being dis- perceptions of student progress using the self-
tracting to students. Embregts et al. (2002) management were more than expected. Barry
reported that video feedback and student self- and Singer (2001) found replacing the aggres-
management was a non-obtrusive and non- sive behavior of a child with autism toward an
confrontational method of changing behav- infant sibling socially valid. Self-management
ior. Staff reported that self-management changed potentially dangerous behaviors and
produced substantial changes in aggressive be- parents reported that siblings had developed a
havior of four of five individuals including the good relationship. This indicates that future
student with autism. research might examine improved impact on
HFA/AS. Self-management procedures re- sibling relationships on parents and other
sulted in increased target behaviors and inde- family members.
pendence in treatment for 23 of 26 partici-
pants. Three out of nine participants in the
Discussion
Palmen et al. (2008) study made gains of 4 to
12 percent of appropriate questions and re- The belief that all individuals have the right to
sponses made during a conversation. Other- direct their own lives through the choices they
wise, the range of percent increase of baseline make has been emphasized in Individuals with
mean to intervention mean in this study was Disabilities Improvement Act (IDEIA, 2004).
23 to 96. The independent variable in Palmen Self-determination skills indicate a more suc-

166 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

cessful transition to adulthood (Wehmeyer et components of self-management programs to
al., 2003). As a critical component of self- evaluate each component’s relative contribu-
determination, self-management should be tion to program effectiveness. Most impor-
taught to students with an ASD. As implied by tantly, future research should evaluate meth-
literature on self-determination (Wehmeyer, ods for taking self-management procedures
1999), research in the area of learning disabil- into the homes of children with ASD. Studies
ities and behavior disorders shows that tech- in the present literature review indicate that
niques to increase self-management are suc- students tend to remain reliant on self-man-
cessful for changing behavior in higher agement procedures and materials. Research-
functioning individuals with well-established ers need to investigate making the materials
verbal language. The current review indicates and equipment as unobtrusive as possible so
that individuals with HFA/AS effectively used they can be generalized to home and commu-
self-management procedures to address defi- nity environments and not draw attention to
cits related to the core characteristics of ASD. the individual. Examining the use of a Per-
Furthermore, added technologies were help- sonal Digital Assistant (PDA) as a tool for
ful adaptations to typical self-management self-management for individuals with ASD has
procedures (e.g., tokens, pictures, video) to potential. For individuals with HFA/AS,
make the interventions viable with lower-func- PDA’s require little training while enabling
tioning individuals with AD. technologically adept students to emit target
Children with ASD specifically have been behavior and become more independent
found to have difficulty “directing, control- (Ferguson, Myles, & Hagiwara, 2005; Myles,
ling, inhibiting, maintaining, and generalizing Ferguson, & Hagiwara, 2007). Further re-
behaviors required for adjustment both in and search on the use of PDA’s across age and
outside of the classroom without external sup- cognitive levels of individuals on the spectrum
port and structure from others” (Wilkinson, is needed.
2008, p. 151). Attention should be drawn to
the fact that self-management procedures fo-
Limitations of Self-management Research
cus on behaviors already in a student’s reper-
toire, behaviors where differential reinforce- Effects of self-management procedures as an
ment and other interventions alone have not intervention to increase target behaviors, in-
been sufficient to maintain the behavior in dependence, and generalization of skills for
inclusive settings. An examination of the people with autism are limited due to con-
methodological adequacy, demographics, and founding variables. Controlling for various
procedures found in 24 single subject re- components of the self-management package
search design studies was used to evaluate self- is difficult. As seen in Tables 3 and 4, each
management procedures for teaching skills to study included various self-management com-
students with an ASD. Data show that across ponents. It is difficult to make comparisons of
participants, settings, or behaviors, self-man- effectiveness when treatment packages vary,
agement interventions resulted in improve- and it would be premature to say that any
ments in desired behaviors. specific component of self-management is the
primary cause of behavior change. Also, most
of self-management procedures were imple-
Future Research
mented with an existing positive reinforce-
While self-management procedures have been ment procedure. Although some studies at-
used across all age groups for youth, there are tempted to control for reinforcement as a
gaps in the literature. Tables 3 and 4 display confounding variable by applying noncontin-
skills addressed using self-management by gent reinforcement before self-management,
individuals with AD and HFA/AS. Analyses of the contingency of reinforcement itself then
these data suggest that future research should became confounding. Was contingent rein-
focus on the effectiveness of self-management forcement simply more powerful than non-
procedures for increasing communication contingent reinforcement?
skills in people with ASD. It is also essential Procedural fidelity data and social validity
that researchers begin to focus on specific of treatment were limited in use across the

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 167

Figure 1. Comparison of percent of studies that used self-management procedures to address core deficits
of ASD and school or vocational skills and a second comparison between AD and HFA/AS.

24 articles reviewed on self-management as an that addresses not only academic and voca-
intervention. Procedural fidelity issues may tional skills, but one that addresses the three
not have been of primary concern since self- core deficits that characterize the disorder.
management is “driven” by the student, not Figure 1 compares ASD core characteristic
the practitioner. In terms of social validity, addressed by self-management studies in-
self-management procedures have been well cluded in this review. The defining character-
established throughout the research over istic impacting independence in individuals
many years (Cooper et al., 2007). Eleven of with ASD is social impairment (Heflin &
the 24 articles reviewed included a measure of Alaimo, 2006). For this reason it is not surpris-
social validity specific to the self-management ing that self-management has been widely
procedure and effect implemented. The re- used to increase social skills, however, data
sults of such measures were all positive in show that an individualized self-management
regard to the acceptability and feasibility of
program may be effective in behavior change
the procedures.
across all ASD core characteristics.
Generalization of the treatment into the
Self-management has three primary com-
home was seldom assessed with home imple-
ponents: self-monitoring, self-recording, and
mentation in four out of 24 studies (17%)
self reinforcement/punishment. Self-monitor-
with only four of 35 individuals with AD
(11%) and one of 24 individuals with HFA/AS ing was basic to all interventions reviewed.
(4%). Educators should be encouraged to Tables 3 and 4 show that combinations of
teach parents to use interventions at home self-monitoring and (a) self-recording (b) self-
to increase skills taught in school (Heflin & reinforcement or (c) both, while incorporat-
Alberto, 2001). ing additional components (e.g., peer train-
ing, contracts, token economy, pictures, and
video), were individual to each study. Social
Research to Practice
validity data supported the individualized
There is an increasing awareness that students nature and meaningful outcomes these treat-
with an ASD require an intervention approach ment packages provided. Teachers and par-

168 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

ents should feel confident that, when appro- munication. Journal of Developmental and Physical
priately implemented and individualized for Disabilities, 18, 251–272.
the student needs, self-management can be Campbell, J. M., & Morgan, S. B. (1998). Asperger’s
an effective, unobtrusive intervention strategy disorder. In L. Phelps (Ed.), Health-related disorders
in children and adolescents (pp. 68 –73). Washing-
within the least restrictive environment.
ton, DC: American Psychological Association.
Self-management interventions are easy to
Center for Disease Control. (2007). Autism Informa-
design, simple to use, potentially portable, tion Center. Retrieved from Web site: http://www.
and practical for teachers. It has been asserted cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/symptoms.htm
that self-management is a pivotal skill that can Cole, C., & Bambara, L. (1992). Issues surrounding
generalize behaviors, support autonomy, and the use of self-management interventions in the
produce behavioral improvements across var- schools. School Psychology Review, 21, 193–202.
ious contexts for children with ASD (Koegel Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
et al., 1999). Based on this idea and current (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper
literature presenting self-management as a vi- Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
able procedure, practical use of self-manage- Coyle, C., & Cole, P. (2004). A videotaped self-
modeling and self-monitoring treatment program
ment procedures is recommended for foster-
to decrease off-task behavior in children with au-
ing independence and inclusion of people tism. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disabil-
with ASD. ity, 29, 3–15.
Delano, M. (2007). Improving written language per-
formance of adolescents with Asperger syndrome.
References Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 345–351.
Embregts, P., Didden, R., Huitink, C., & Schreuder,
Agran, M., Sinclair, T., Alper, S., Cavin, M., Weh- N. (2009). Contextual variables affecting aggres-
meyer, M., & Hughes, C. (2005). Using self- sive behavior in individuals with mild to border-
monitoring to increase following-direction skills line intellectual disabilities who live in a residen-
of students with moderate to severe disabilities in tial facility. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,
general education. Education and Training in De- 53, 255–264.
velopmental Disabilities, 40, 3–13. Ferguson, H., Myles, B., & Hagiwara, T. (2005).
Agran, M., Snow, K., & Swaner, J. (1999). Teacher Using a Personal Digital Assistant to Enhance the
perceptions and self-determination: Benefits, Independence of an Adolescent with Asperger
characteristics, strategies. Education and Training Syndrome. Education and Training in Developmental
in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, Disabilities, 40, 60 – 67.
34, 293–301. Ganz, J. B., & Sigafoos, J. (2005). Self-monitoring:
American Psychiatric Association.(1980). Diagnostic Are young adults with MR and autism able to
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (3rd ed.). utilize cognitive strategies independently? Educa-
Washington, DC: Author. tion and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40,
American Psychiatric Association.(1994). Diagnostic 24 –33.
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (4th ed.). Gast, D. L. (Ed.).(2010). Single subject research meth-
Washington, DC: Author. odology in behavioral sciences. New York: Routledge.
American Psychiatric Association.(2000). Diagnostic Gast, D. L., & Hammond, D. (2010). Withdrawal
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (4th ed. and reversal designs. In D. L. Gast (Ed.), Single
Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author. subject research methodology in behavioral sciences (pp.
Apple, L. A., Billingsley, F., & Schwartz, I. (2005). 234 –275). New York: Routledge.
Effects of video modeling alone and with self- Gast, D. L. & Ledford, J. (2010). Multiple baseline
management on compliment-giving behaviors of and multiple probe designs. In D. L. Gast (Ed.),
children with high-functioning ASD. Journal of Single subject research methodology in behavioral sci-
Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 33– 46. ences (pp. 276 –328). New York: Routledge.
Barry, L., & Singer, G. (2001). A family in crisis: Happé, F., Booth, R., Charlton, R., & Hughes, C.
Replacing the aggressive behavior of a child with (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spec-
autism toward an infant sibling. Journal of Positive trum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactiv-
Behavior Interventions, 3, 28 –38. ity disorder: Examining profiles across domains
Billingsly, F., White, O. R., & Munson R. (1980). and ages. Brain & Cognition, 61, 25–39.
Procedural reliability: A rationale and example. Heflin, J. L. & Alberto, P. A. (2001). Establishing a
Behavioral Assessment, 2, 229 –241. behavioral context for learning with students with
Campbell, J. M. (2006). Changing children’s atti- autism. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Dis-
tudes toward autism: A process of persuasive com- abilities, 16, 93-101.

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 169

Heflin, J. L., & Alaimo, D. (2006). Autism spectrum Mruzek, D., Cohen, C., & Smith, T. (2007). Contin-
disorders: Effective instructional practices. Upper Sad- gency contracting with students with autism spec-
dle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. trum disorders in a public school setting. Journal
Hughes, C., Copeland, S. R., Agran, M., Wehmeyer, of Developmental & Physical disabilities, 19, 103–114.
M., L., Rodi, M. S., & Presley, J. A. (2002). Using Myles, B., Ferguson, H., & Hagiwara, T. (2007).
self-monitoring to improve performance in gen- Using a personal digital assistant to improve the
eral education high school classes. Education and recording of homework assignments by an ado-
Training in Mental Retardation Developmental Dis- lescent with asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism
abilities, 37, 262–272. and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22, 96 –99.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improve- Myles, B. S., & Southwick, J. (1999). Asperger syn-
ment Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004) drome and difficult moments: Practical solutions for
(reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabili- tantrums, rage, and meltdowns. Shawnee Mission,
ties Education Act of 1990). Kansas: Autism Asperger Publishing Co.
Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective Newman, B., Buffington, D. M., & Hemmes, N. S.
contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250. (1996). Self-reinforcement used to increase the
Kanner, L. (1985). Autistic disturbances of affective appropriate conversation of autistic teenagers. Ed-
contact. In A. Donnellan (Ed.), Classic readings in ucation and Training in Mental Retardation and De-
autism (pp. 11–52). New York: Teacher’s College velopmental Disabilities, 31, 304 –309.
Press. (Reprinted from Nervous Child, 2, 217-250, Newman, B., Buffington, D. M., O’Grady, M. A.,
1943). McDonald, M. E., Poulson, C. L., & Hemmes,
Kern, L., Marder, T. J., Boyajian, A., Elliot, C. M., & N. S. (1995). Self-management of schedule fol-
McElhattan, D. (1997). Augmenting the indepen- lowing in three teenagers with autism. Behavioral
dence of self-management procedures by teach- Disorders, 10, 190 –196.
ing self-initiation across settings and activities. Newman, B., Reinecke, D. R., & Meinberg, D. L.
School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 23–32. (2000). Self-management of varied responding in
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, three students with autism, Behavioral Intervention,
W. D. (1992). Improving social skills and disrup- 15, 145–151.
tive behavior in children with autism through Newman, B., Tuntigian, L., Ryan, C., & Reinecke, D.
self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior Anal- (1997). Self-management of a DRO procedure
ysis, 25, 341–353. by three students with autism. Behavioral Interven-
Koegel, L., Koegel, R., Harrower, J., & Carter, C. tions, 12, 149 –156.
(1999). Pivotal response intervention: Overview Ozonoff, S., & Rogers, S (2003). From Kanner to
of approach. Journal of the Association for Persons the millennium: Scientific advances that have
with Severe Handicaps, 24, 174 –185. shaped clinical practice. In Ozonoff, S., Rogers,
Lee, S., Simpson, R., & Shoran, K. (2007). Effects S., & Hendron, R. L. (Eds.), Autism spectrum dis-
and implications of self-management for students orders: A research review for practitioners (pp. 3–36).
with autism: A meta-analysis. Focus on Autism & Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing,
Other Developmental Disabilities, 22, 2–13. Inc.
Loftin, R., Odom, S., & Lantz, J. (2008). Social Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S., & Hendron, R. L. (2003).
interaction and repetitive motor behaviors. Jour- Autism spectrum disorders: A research review for prac-
nal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 38, 1124 – titioners. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Pub-
1135. lishing, Inc.
Macintosh, K. E., & Dissanayake, C. (2004). Anno- Palmen, A., Didden, R., & Arts, M. (2008). Improv-
tation: The similarities and differences between ing question asking in high-functioning adoles-
autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder: A re- cents with autism spectrum disorders. Autism: The
view of the empirical evidence. Journal of Child International Journal of Research & Practice, 12, 83–
Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 421– 434. 98.
Mancina, C., Tankersley, M., Kamps, D., Kravits, T., Pierce, K. L., & Schreibman, L. (1994). Teaching
& Parrett, J. (2000). Brief report: Reduction of daily living skills to children with autism in unsu-
inappropriate vocalizations for a child with au- pervised settings through pictorial self-manage-
tism using a self-management treatment pro- ment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 471–
gram. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 481.
30, 599. Prater, M., & Hogan, S. (1992). Using self-monitor-
Morrison, L., Kamps, D., Garcia, J., Parker, D., & ing to improve of-task behavior and academic
Dunlap, G. (2001). Peer mediation and monitor- skills of an adolescent with mild. Education &
ing strategies to improve initiation and social Treatment of Children, 15, 43–58.
skills for students with autism. Journal of Positive Reinecke, D. R., Newman, B., & Meinberg, D. L.
Behavior Interventions, 3, 237. (1999). Self-management of sharing in three pre-

170 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2011

 schoolers with autism. Education and Training in mental disorders volume one (pp. 5– 41). New Jersey:
Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
34, 312–317. Wehmeyer, M. (1999). A functional model of self-
Rimland, B. (1985). The etiology of infantile au- determination: Describing development and im-
tism: The problem of biological versus psycholog- plementing instruction. Focus on Autism and Other
ical causation. In A. Donnellan (Ed.), Classic read- Developmental Disabilities, 14, 53-61.
ings in autism (pp. 84 –104). New York: Teacher’s Wehmeyer, M., Yeager, D., Bolding, N., Agran, M.,
College Press. (Reprinted from Infantile autism, & Hughes, C. (2003). The effects of self-regula-
pp. 39 – 66, by B. P. Rimland, 1964, New York: tion strategies on goal attainment for students
Appleton-Century-Crofts). with developmental disabilities in general educa-
Scheuermann, B., & Webber, J. (2002). Autism: tion classrooms. Journal of Developmental & Physical
Teaching does make a difference. Belmont, CA: Wads- Disabilities, 15, 79 –91.
worth Thompson Learning. Wilkinson, L. (2005). Supporting the inclusion of
Shabani, D., Wilder, D., & Flood, W. (2001). Reduc- a student with Asperger syndrome: A case study
ing stereotypic behavior through discrimination using conjoint behavioral consultation and self-
training, differential reinforcement of other be- management. Educational Psychology in Practice, 21,
havior, and self-monitoring. Behavioral Interven- 307–326.
Wilkinson, L. (2008). Self-Management for children
tions, 16, 279 –286.
with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders.
Shapiro, H. (1981). Implementing P.L. 94-142 in
Intervention in School & Clinic, 43, 150 –157.
the high school: A successful in-service training
Wing, L. (1981). Asperger’s disorder: A clinical ac-
model. Education, 102, 47–52.
count. Psychological Medicine, 11, 115–129.
Strain, P., & Kohler, F. (1994). Teaching preschool-
Witwer, A. N., & Lecavalier, L. (2008). Examining
ers with autism to self-monitor their social inter-
the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes.
actions: An analysis of results in home and school
Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 38, 1611–
settings. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disor-
1624.
ders, 2, 78 –92. Wolery, M., & Lane, K. L. (2010). Writing tasks:
Thede, L. L., & Coolidge, F. L. (2007). Psychologi- Literature reviews, research proposals, and final
cal and neurobehavioral comparisons of children reports. In D. L. Gast (Ed.), Single subject research
with Asperger’s disorder versus high-functioning methodology in behavioral sciences (pp. 57–90). New
autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disor- York: Routledge.
ders, 37, 847– 854. Wolf, M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjec-
Todd, T., & Reid, G. (2006). Increasing physical tive measurement or how applied behavior anal-
activity in individuals with autism. Focus on Autism ysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior
and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 167–176. Analysis, 11, 203–214.
Volkmar, F. R., & Klin, A. (2005). Issues in the
classification of autism and related conditions. In Received: 11 January 2010
Volkmar, F. R., Rhea, P., Ami, K., & Cohen, D. Initial Acceptance: 15 March 2010
(Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive develop- Final Acceptance: 10 June 2010

Self-Management Procedures across the Spectrum / 171

View publication stats