Explain the Merging wireless networks and PSTN

Merging Wireless Networks and PSTN

1. Signaling and Voice traffic were sent on the same trunked lines i.e., a single physical connection was
used to handle both of them.

2. In mid 1980’s when W/L evolved , the PSTN was transformed into two parallel networksone for voice
and other for setup, which is known as Common Channel Signaling(CCS).

3. Access to signaling N/W is provided by IXC’s.

4. North America- Signaling-SS7.

What is intelligent cell concept

Intelligent cell is that the cell is able to intelligently monitor where the mobile unit or
portable unit is and find a way to deliver confined power to that mobile unit. The other
definition of intelligent cell is that signals coexist comfortably and indestructibly with the
interference in the cell.

Cellular communications systems are wireless mobile communications systems

that divide a large geographic area into smaller sections or cells, each with a low-power
wireless transmitter, for the purpose of optimising the use of a limited number of
frequencies.

A cell is the geographic area that is covered by a single base station in a cellular
network. A network for wireless communications is comprised of a large number of base
stations to efficiently use radio spectrum to cover the service area. Geographically
separated frequencies may be reused many times.

Intelligent microcell systems

Divided the cell into many zones

The cell operator knows which zone the mobile unit is in and delivers the radio signal to that zone.

When the mobile unit assign a frequency channel is always associate with a call in a cell.

The cell operator simply turn on the new zone site while the mobile unit is entering & turn off the old
zone site when it leaves with the assign frequency channel to the mobile unit unchanged.

Intelligent Microcell Applications

 1. Delivering power to extended cells converters are used to up convert 800 M Hz signal at BS and
Tx to an extended cell thru air. It is then down converted to 800 M Hz when it reaches the cell
where only a converter is installed.
2. Increasing capacity as the power can be delivered and received intelligently at the MU, the
capacity to increase.
3. Coverage A places where regular cell sites cannot be installed, there these invisible zone sites
can be used to provide coverage especially in urban areas(covering the winding roads and
coverage under the greens).
4. Reducing interference an intelligent microcell reduces its unnecessary radiated power and
the interference it generates.
5. In- building communication the intelligent cell can increase radio capacity many time.
Application of Intelligent Microcell in in-Building Communication

• Tx power for in-Building communication should be 20dB stronger than for outside building
communication.

• There is weak reception at lower floor compared to strong reception at higher floor. It poses
problem for the running system to serve both ground mobile and in-Building communication
simultaneously.

• A ch entering a multi floor building can serve only one user who is located on one floor. So in-
Building communication needs enormous channels which are NA .

Packet Radio
Packet radio a method of broadcasting that makes use of radio signals
carrying packets of data.

A communication mode between the amateur radio stations where computers control how

the radio stations handle the traffic. The computers and attached modems organize
information into smaller chunks of it—often referred as ‘packets’ of data, and route the packets
to intended destinations.  Packet radio is a particular digital mode of Amateur
Radio ("Ham" Radio) communication Ps which corresponds to computer
telecommunications. The telephone modem is replaced by a "magic" box called
a terminal node controller (TNC); the telephone is replaced by an amateur radio
transceiver, and the phone system is replaced by the "free" amateur radio waves.
Packet radio takes any data stream sent from a computer and sends that via radio to
another amateur radio station similarly equipped. Packet radio is so named because it
sends the data in small bursts, or packets.

History of Packet Radio

Data packet technology was developed in the mid-1960's and was put into practical
application in the ARPANET which was established in 1969. Initiated in 1970, the
ALOHANET, based at the University of Hawaii, was the first large-scale packet radio
project. Amateur packet radio began in Montreal, Canada in 1978, the first transmission
occurring on May 31st. This was followed by the Vancouver Amateur Digital
Communication Group (VADCG) development of a Terminal Node Controller (TNC) in
1980.

The current TNC standard grew from a discussion in October of 1981 at a meeting of
the Tucson Chapter of the IEEE Computer Society. A week later, six of the attendees
gathered and discussed the feasibility of developing a TNC that would be available to
amateurs at a modest cost. The Tucson Amateur Packet Radio Corporation (TAPR)
formed from this project. On June 26th 1982, Lyle Johnson, WA7GXD, and Den
Connors, KD2S, initiated a packet contact with the first TAPR unit.

The project progressed from these first prototype units to the TNC-1 and then finally to
the TNC-2 which is now the basis for most packet operations worldwide.

Why Packet Over Other Modes?

Packet has three great advantages over other digital modes: transparency, error

correction, and automatic control.

The operation of a packet station is transparent to the end user; connect to the other
station, type in your message, and it is sent automatically. The terminal Node Controller
(TNC) automatically divides the message into packets, keys the transmitter, and then
sends the packets. While receiving packets, the TNC automatically decodes, checks for
errors, and displays the received messages. Packet radio provides error free
communications because of built-in error detection schemes. If a packet is received, it is
checked for errors and will be displayed only if it is correct.

In addition, any packet TNC can be used as a packet relay station, sometimes called a
digipeater. This allows for greater range by stringing several packet stations together.

Users can connect to their friends' TNCs at any time they wish, to see if they are at
home.Some TNCs even have Personal BBSs (sometimes called mailboxes) so other
amateurs can leave messages for them when they are not at home (like the Kantronics
KPC-3 Plus). Another advantage of packet over other modes is the ability for many
users to be able to use the same frequency channel simultaneously.

Elements Which Make up a Packet Station

Figure 1 shows an illustration of a typical station setup with a schematic diagram of a

station wiring.
TNC (terminal Node Controller)
A TNC contains a modem, a computer processor (CPU), and the associated circuitry
required to convert communications between your computer (RS-232) and the packet
radio protocol in use.

A TNC assembles a packet from data received from the computer, computes an error
check (CRC) for the packet, modulates it into audio frequencies, and puts out
appropriate signals to transmit the packet over the connected radio.

It also reverses the process, translating the audio that the connected radio receives into
a byte stream that is then sent to the computer.

Most amateurs currently use 1200 bps (bits per second) for local VHF and UHF packet,
and 300 bps for longer distance, lower bandwidth HF communication.

Higher speeds are available for use in the VHF, UHF, and especially microwave region,
but they often require special (not plug-and-play) hardware and drivers.

Computer or Terminal
This is the user interface. A computer running a terminal emulator program, a packet-
specific program, or just a dumb terminal can be used. For computers, almost any
phone modem communications program (i.e. Procomm+, Bitcom, X-Talk) can be
adapted for packet use, but there are also customized packet radio programs available.
A dumb terminal, while possibly the cheapest option, does have several limitations.
Most dumb terminals do not allow you to scroll backwards, store information, upload, or
download files.

A Radio
For 1200/2400 bps UHF/VHF packet, commonly available narrow band FM voice radios
are used.

For HF packet, 300 BPS data is used over single side band (SSB) modulation.

For high speed packet (starting at 9600 bps), special radios or modified FM radios must
be used.

1200 bps AFSK TNCs used on 2-meters (144-148Mhz) is the most commonly found
packet radio.

What are the Distance Limitations of Packet Radio

Since packet radio is most commonly used at the higher radio frequencies (VHF), the
range of the transmission is somewhat limited.

Generally, transmission range is limited to "unobstructed line-of-sight" plus

approximately 10-15%.The transmission range is influenced by the transmitter power
and the type and location of the antenna, as well as the actual frequency used and the
length of the antenna feed line (the cable connecting the radio to the antenna).

Another factor influencing the transmission range is the existence of obstructions (hills,
groups of buildings , etc).

Thus, for two-meter packet (144 - 148Mhz), the range could be 10 to 100 miles,
depending on the specific combination of the variables mentioned above.

We Can All Use the Same Channel ?

Packet radio, unlike voice communications, can support multiple conversations on the
same frequency at the same time. This does not mean that interference does not occur
when two stations transmit at the same time, known as a collision. What 'same time'
means in this sense is that multiple conversations are possible in a managed, time
shared fashion. Conversations occur during the times when the other conversations are
not using the channel. Packet radio uses a protocol called AX.25 to accomplish this
shared channel.
AX.25 specifies channel access (ability to transmit on the channel) to be handled
by CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access). If you need to transmit, your TNC monitors
the channel to see if someone else is transmitting. If no one else is transmitting, then
the TNC keys up the radio, and sends its packet. All the other stations hear the packet
and do not transmit until you are done. Unfortunately, two stations could accidentally
transmit at the same time. This is called a collision. If a collision occurs, neither TNC will
receive a reply back from the last packet it sent. Each TNC will wait a random amount of
time and then retransmit the packet. In actuality, a more complex scheme is used to
determine when the TNC transmits.

What is AX.25?
AX.25 (Amateur X.25) is the communications protocol used for packet radio.

A protocol is a standard for two computer systems to communicate with each other,
somewhat analogous to using a business format when writing a business letter.

AX.25 includes a digipeater field to allow other stations to automatically repeat packets
to extend the range of transmitters.

One advantage of AX.25 is that every packet sent contains the sender's and recipient's
amateur radio call sign, thus providing station identification with every transmission.

Networking and special packet protocols

This is a sample of some of the more popular networking schemes available today.

By far, there are more customized networking schemes used than listed.

Consult your local packet network group for specific network information.

TCP/IP is used in some areas for amateur radio.

Also, some networking protocols use packet formats other than AX.25.

Often, special packet radio protocols are encapsulated within AX.25 packet frames. This
is done to insure compliance with regulations requiring packet radio transmissions to be
in the form of AX.25.

However, details of AX.25 encapsulation rules vary from country to country.

Networking Schemes
some of those other networking scheme.

During the early days of amateur packet radio, it became apparent that a packet network was
needed. To this end, the following packet network schemes were created.

Digipeaters
The first networking scheme with packet radio was Digipeaters. Digipeaters would
simply look at a packet, and if its call was in the digipeater field, would resend the
packet. Digipeaters allow the extension of range of a transmitter by re-transmitting any
packets addressed to the digipeater. This scheme worked well when only a few people
were on the radio channel.

However, as packet became more popular, digipeaters soon were clogging up the
airwaves with traffic being repeated over long distances.

KA-Nodes
Kantronics improved on the digipeater slightly and created KA-Nodes.

As with digipeaters, KA-Nodes simply repeat AX.25 frames.

KA-Nodes therefore are more reliable than digipeaters, but are not a true network. It is
similar to having to wire your own telephone network to make a phone call.

NET/ROM
NET/ROM was one of the first networking schemes to try to address the problems with
digipeaters.

A user connects to a NET/ROM station as if connecting to any other packet station.

From there, he can issue commands to instruct the station to connect to another user
locally or connect to another NET/ROM station. This connect, then connect again,
means that to a user's TNC, you are connected to a local station only and its
transmissions do not have to be digipeated over the entire network and risk losing
packets.

This is again used to increase efficiency of its transmissions. NET/ROM nodes, at

regular intervals, transmit to other nodes their current list of known nodes.

This is good because as new nodes come on-line, they are automatically integrated in
the network. However, if band conditions such as ducting occur, ordinarily unreachable
nodes can be entered into node lists.
This causes the NET/ROM routing software to choose routes to distant nodes that are
impossible. This problem requires users to develop a route to a distant node manually
defining each hop instead of using the automatic routing feature.

NET/ROM is a commercial firmware (software put on a chip) program that is used as a

replacement ROM in TAPR type TNCs.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is commonly
used over the Internet wired computer network.

The TCP/IP suite contains different transmission facilities such as FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol), Telnet (Remote terminal protocol),
and NNTP (Net News Transfer Protocol.)

The KA9Q NOS program (also called NET) is the most commonly used version of
TCP/IP in packet radio. NOS originally was written for the PC compatible.

However, NOS has been ported to many different computers such as the Amiga,
Macintosh, Unix, and others. Smaller computers like the Commodore 64 and the Timex-
Sinclar do not currently have versions of NOS available.

TCP/IP based amateur networks are becoming more common.

TexNet

TexNet is a 3-port switch designed to create a 9600 baud backbone with 2 local access
channels. The TexNet network provides transparent network access to the user.

The user simply accesses his/her local TexNet node and then either connects to a user
at another node or accesses various system services. TexNet provides the stability of
fixed routing, while allowing new nodes to be automatically brought into the network.

BBS Message Transfer

Many of the BBS programs used in packet radio allow for mail and bulletins to be
transferred over the packet radio networks. The BBSs use a special forwarding protocol
developed originally by Hank Oredsen, W0RLI.

Besides full service BBSs, many TNC makers have developed Personal BBS software
to allow full service BBSs to forward mail directly to the amateur's TNC.This allows
operators to receive packet mail at night and avoid tying up the network during busy
hours.
Detail about intelligent cell concept and its application
One definition of intelligent cell is that the cell is able to intelligently monitor where the mobile unit or
portable unit is and find a way to deliver confined power to that mobile unit. The other definition of
intelligent cell is that signals coexist comfortably and indestructibly with the interference in the cell.

Cellular communications systems are wireless mobile communications systems that divide a large
geographic area into smaller sections or cells, each with a low-power wireless transmitter, for the
purpose of optimising the use of a limited number of frequencies.

The rate of increasing the mobile phone in a year 100% hence it is necessary to increase the
capacity of cellular system.

Intelligent Cell concept

• The rate of increasing the mobile phone in a year 100 year hence it is necessary to increase the
capacity of cellular system.

• There are many technique to increase the capacity of cellular system like splitting, sectorizing,
microcell .they are not intelligent because they suffer from:

1. Interference is difficult to control

2. Handoff do not have the enough time to complete so call drop.

• Capacity can be increased by reducing cell sizes (Cell Splitting). As cell size reduces , control of
interference among the cells becomes difficult. There may not be enough time for the hand-off to get
completed. The call may get dropped. Intelligent cell solves these problems.

• Intelligent cell is that cell which is able to intelligently monitor the position of the MU and find a way
to deliver the confined power to that MU. This cell is called POWER DELIVERY INTELLIGENT CELL.

• Intelligent cell is also that cell in which the signals co-exist comfortably and permanently with the
interference. This type of cell is called PROCESSING GAIN INTELLIGENT CELL.

• Intelligent Cells can be large cells (Macro cells) or small cells( mini cell or micro cell ) .These increase
capacity and improve performance of voice and data transmission.

Power delivery intelligent cell

• In conventional conventional microcell or macro- cell when mobile unit enter the enter the cell or
sector ,the cell site cover the power to entire cell.

• In intelligent microcell or macro-cell , when mobile unit enter the enter the cell or sector ,the cell
cover only the local area which follows the mobile unit.
The Philosophy of implementing

• To make the system intelligent there are two conditions:

1. The cell operator has know where the mobile unit is located so different different resolution
methods are used to locate the mobile unit.

2. The cell operator has to be able to deliver the power to the mobile unit .if the power transmitted
from cell site to mobile unit can be confirmed in a small area co -channel interference reduces and
system capacity increase.

Radio Capacity

• Radio capacity (for omni cell): m = M/K

no of channel/cell

• Radio capacity (for Sector cell): m = M/(k*5) no of channel/cell

• Cell Reuse Factor: m = 1/3(D/R)².

• Carrier to interference ratio:

• Radio capacity of omni cell is :

M- total no of channel, s-no of sector,k- cell reuse factor, m-radio capacity

Type of intelligent cell

IN BUILDING COMMUNICATION
The term 'in-building wireless' refers to communication solutions that maintain
connectivity inside a building where signals from the core infrastructure are not
reachable.

Basically, it is a telecommunications solution that provides a way to enhance and

distribute wireless connections inside an office building or any large commercial space.
A DAS is able to amplify the existing cell signal to provide connectivity to all cellular
devices inside a structure.

The need for reliable communications does not stop at the door of a building. Increasingly,
public safety entities, commercial wireless service providers, and wireless users require
reliable communications inside buildings and, where applicable, inside tunnels. For public
safety, reliable coverage is often essential throughout a broad jurisdiction, including
coverage on-street, in-building, and in-tunnels. In such cases, there is no substitute for a
properly designed dedicated mission-critical communications system with sufficient
transmit sites to provide the level of signal required for reliable coverage anywhere within
the jurisdiction, whether on-street or indoors.

There are three primary approaches to achieving in-building coverage: 1) Increasing the
signal level through deployment of additional antenna sites within the jurisdiction;

2) Supplementing coverage in a specific building with a permanent system that boosts the
signal level received from and transmitted to the outside; and

3) Using deployable systems which can boost coverage in a building for a specific incident
scene on a temporary basis.

How In-Building Wireless Works

Much like how your building’s wireless internet, or Wi-Fi, works, an in-building wireless
system takes an existing source signal and distributes it throughout the site. Also known
as IBW, in-building wireless is a comprehensive cellular solution intended to bring in the
cell service to every corner of your building without having to upgrade your existing
service or your phones. It all starts with your cell provider. Whether you’re on Verizon,
AT&T, Sprint, T-Mobile or another smaller, regional, or third-party provider, the signal
from the closest cell tower has to reach every part of your building. Unfortunately, many
building materials naturally reject cell signals. These materials include e-glass, dense
concrete, and troublesome walls with fluffy insulation.

If you’re on the edge of service, it can mean the difference between a successful
conversation and a constant nightmare of dropped or missed calls. Even if you’re in an
urban area with excellent cell coverage, rampant dead spots can frustrate people in
your building, regardless of their network or phones.
With an in-building wireless system, a signal from a tower on the other side of town or
just a few blocks away can be amplified and repeated to every device within your
building without cumbersome Wi-Fi calling apps or tricky upgrades that may not solve
the larger issue. It works by taking the signal directly from the source, through antennas
that feed a central processing unit. This processing unit regulates and amplifies or
relays the signal to areas in your building that need it, making dead zones a thing of the
past. An in-building wireless system gives you a coverage solution that fixes this
problem once and for all with no need for troublesome or finicky hacks or workarounds.
Each indoor antenna feeds a clear signal from outside throughout your building,
seamlessly integrating the coverage you already pay for with the coverage you need
indoors to communicate effectively.

DAS wireless and other coverage solutions have numerous, secondary benefits. For
instance, if you own a building, strong indoor cellular service can increase the property
value by a quarter to a third as tenants benefit from good indoor service while
eschewing DIY fixes. Furthermore, as federal regulations and local statutes catch up
with the progression of modern technology, you’ll be ahead of the game and avoid
troublesome taxes and fees in the coming years. 

Likewise, if customers visit your business on a regular basis or you serve the local
community on any level, you’ll find that your clientele would rather spend more money
and time with you than your competitors as they make use of your rock solid network.
If you have to move a meeting space or hold an impromptu brainstorm on the far side of
the building, you and your workers won’t be left scrambling for a hot spot or another
signal enhancement device — you’ll already be covered. Your employees will
appreciate your in-building mobile coverage and feel empowered to get more done with
various cellular connected devices such as tablets or smartphones.