Exercise 3

CELL STRUCTURE AND VARIATIONS

MATERIALS
Before the laboratory class begins, you must bring:
A waterthyme (Hydrilla sp.) plant A potato (Solanum tuberosum) tuber
An onion (Allium cepa) bulb A shoot of squash (Cucurbita maxima)

In this laboratory exercise, you will borrow:

This educational material is strictly for Bio 01L (General Biology 01

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1 compound microscope 1 prepared slide of Amoeba

printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.

1 cover slip 1 prepared slide of Paramecium
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

1 glass slide 1 prepared slide of Human (Homo sapiens)

1 scalpel blood smear
1 prepared slide of Bacillus sp. 1 prepared slide of Human (Homo sapiens)
1 prepared slide of Nostoc sp. small intestine cross section

REMINDERS: You will be drawing your observations in this exercise. Remember what
you have learned in exercise 1. In addition, avoid overlapping your lines when labeling
your specimens. When possible, place all your labels on the right side of your illustration.

METHODS

3.1 PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Organisms under the Domains Bacteria and Archaea are known as prokaryotes, which
indicates that these are cells that lack a nucleus. However, they—especially bacteria, are one of
the most abundant and diverse organisms on earth. Other than lacking a nucleus, they also lack
membrane-bound organelles. Their cytoplasm is enclosed by a cell membrane and a layer of
peptidoglycan—made up of sugars and proteins, known as the cell wall. These cells come in a
variety of shapes, from circular ones to ones that look like a spiral.

3.1.1 Prepared slide of rod-shaped Bacteria

Mount the permanent slide of Bacillus sp. using the high power objective, then switch to oil
immersion objective (If objective is present and oil is available. If not, use high power
objective). Ask the help of your instructor regarding the use of oil immersion objective.
Study the prepared slide of bacteria. Take note of the shape of this kind of bacteria.

3.1.2 Prepared slide of spheroid-shaped Bacteria

Mount the permanent slide of Nostoc sp. using the high power objective, then switch to oil
immersion objective (If objective is present and oil is available. If not, use high power
objective). Ask the help of your instructor regarding the use of oil immersion objective.
Study the prepared slide of bacteria. Take note of the shape of this kind of bacteria.

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 3.2 EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3.2.1 PROTISTS
The term “protist” is an informal term to group a diverse range of eukaryotes that do not
belong to the plant, animal, and fungi kingdoms in the tree of life. They are usually unicellular
and microscopic but there are exceptions such as algae, which in some cases, can reach 30
meters in length. In this exercise, you will observe protists from a prepared slide of Amoeba
and Paramecium.
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3.2.1.1 Prepared slide of Paramecium

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printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
Paramecium is a genus of microscopic, ciliated eukaryotes that are common in almost all
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

aquatic habitats. One of their distinguishing characteristics is their cilia, which are short,
hair-like projections to facilitate locomotion. Cilia are like flagella but are much shorter and
definitely more numerous with a different undulating pattern. Another feature that must be
observed in Paramecium is that their nucleus is divided into two: the macro- and
micronucleus. Their macronucleus is responsible for the growth, maintenance, and
development of the organism, whereas the micronucleus is the germ line nucleus—used
for the exchange of DNA during sexual reproduction.

1. Examine a prepared slide of Paramecium under a compound microscope.

2. Look for color-stained structures at LPO.
3. Once a color-stained cell is centered in the field. Increase your magnification with the
HPO.
4. Observe the structure of Paramecium and look for the cilia, cytoplasm, cell membrane,
macro- and micronucleus.

3.2.1.2 Prepared slide of Amoeba

The locomotor movements of Amoeba are through the use of pseudopodia. These are
extensions of the plasma membrane as it grasps onto surfaces and pulls the organism
forward. These structures are also used for obtaining food. Another structure that is of
interest in Amoeba is their contractile vacuole. These are circular organelles within the
Amoeba that is used for the storage and expulsion of water and waste products.

1. Examine a prepared slide of Amoeba under a compound microscope.

2. Look for color-stained structures at LPO.
3. Once a color-stained cell is centered in the field. Increase your magnification with the
HPO. Observe the following structures: pseudopodia, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
contractile vacuole, macronucleus, and micronucleus).

3.2.2 PLANT CELLS

3.2.2.1 Onion (Allium cepa) bulb epidermis

Cells of the thin inner epidermis of an onion scale show many features found in non-green
plant cells and are excellent subjects to use in your beginning study of cells.

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 1. Cut an onion scale into quarters, and with forceps or with your fingernail, remove the
inner transparent membrane of an onion and cut a small segment.
2. Place the transparent segment gently on a clean glass slide, and add a drop of IKI
solution to stain the cells. If necessary, straighten out the membrane with forceps.
3. Then cover the slide with a cover slip. Avoid trapping air bubbles into the slide.
4. Observe the preparation under the low power, adjusting the light intensity until it is
favorable then switch to high power objective. Note the arrangement of the cells and
the location of the nucleus.
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5. Look for the following structures: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

As governed by R.A. 8293 and R.A. 10372, this material should not be
printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

3.2.2.2 Epidermal hairs of a squash (Cucurbita maxima) shoot

The fine hairy outgrowths of most plant surfaces are known as trichomes. They are
specialized plant cells usually found on the epidermis (outermost layer of cells of a plant) of
most plants. They provide a variety of functions such as water regulation, mechanical and
chemical defense, and in some cases, predation. Compare these structures to those of
normal plant cells.

1. Scrape off a few epidermal hairs from a squash shoot or leaf with a razor blade.
2. Spread the epidermal hairs on a glass slide.
3. Examine them under low-power and high-power objectives.
4. Count the number of cells in each of epidermal hair.
5. Look for the following structures: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

3.2.2.3 PLANT PLASTIDS

Plastids rounded, oval or irregularly-shaped bodies found inside the cell. They are the site
for the manufacturing and storage of various biological compounds necessary for the
survival and normal functioning of a plant. Chloroplasts are plastids that are responsible
for photosynthesis and hold the green pigment known as chlorophyll. Chromoplasts
store other pigments like carotenoids and anthocyanins which are responsible for the
vibrant coloration in petals. Some plastids function for food storage and are usually
colorless. These are called leucoplasts. Leucoplasts are of different types such as
amyloplasts – associated with the storage of starch, elaioplasts – associated with the
storage of oil, and aleuroplasts – associated with the storage of proteins.

3.2.2.3.1 Waterthyme (Hydrilla verticillata) leaf cells

1. Place the Hydrilla plant in a beaker with water and expose to direct sunlight for 15
minutes.
2. Obtain a young leaf which is found at the tip of the plant.
3. Place the leaf on a glass slide and add a drop of water and cover with a coverslip.
4. Examine under low power and high power objectives. Note the green small bodies inside
each cell. These are plastids called chloroplasts suspended in the cytosol. Observe the
movement of the cell contents. This phenomenon is called cytoplasmic streaming or

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 cyclosis. In addition, observe the following structures: cell wall, cell membrane, and
cytoplasm.

3.2.2.3.2 Potato (Solanum tuberosum) cell plastids.

1. Using a razor blade or scalpel, cut a very thin section of potato tuber and make a wet
mount.
2. Place the section on the slide and cover it with cover slip.
This educational material is strictly for Bio 01L (General Biology 01

3. Examine under the microscope.

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printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
4. With the use of the low power objective, look for the leucoplasts. These are the oval
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

shaped colorless plastids you will find inside the cells.

5. Switch to high power objective and observe closely the starch granules and the cell wall.
6. Place a drop of IKI solution at the edge of the cover slip. Allow the solution to diffuse
towards the specimen by placing a piece of tissue paper on the other side of the cover
slip.
7. Observe under LPO and HPO the effect of iodine solution as it comes in contact with the
starch grains. Observe following structures: cell wall, cell membrane and leucoplasts.

3.2.3 ANIMAL CELLS

3.2.3.1 Human (H. sapiens) Blood Cells
Red blood cells are specialized cells that constitute a kind of tissue known as connective
tissue. This kind of tissue binds other kinds of tissues together. However, blood is a special
type of connective tissue as they function for the delivery of nutrients, wastes, and gases to
various parts of the body. The red blood cells of mammals (e.g. Humans) lack a nucleus.
This adaptation in mammalian red blood cells helps them efficiently transport oxygen
throughout the body.

1. Examine a prepared slide of a human. Locate some blood cells under the high power
objective. Describe the shape of the cells.
2. Draw 5 human blood cells as viewed under HPO and identify its type (red blood cell and
white blood cell) in the laboratory exercises portion of the lesson. Be sure to provide its
proper magnification.

3.2.3.2 Columnar cells of the Human Small Intestine

Some cells exhibit modifications of their cell surfaces that relate to specialized functions.
The columnar epithelial cells lining your intestine are adorned with small extensions of the
plasma membrane known as microvilli or brush borders. They function for increased
surface area for the absorption of various nutrients digested from your food. However,
individual microvilli can only be viewed with an electron microscope.

1. Examine the permanent slide of human small intestine and observe the microvilli at the
free end of the cells.
2. Draw at least 5 cells as viewed under HPO and label the following structures: microvilli,
cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus

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 EXERCISE 3: LABORATORY OBSERVATIONS AND NOTES
Name: ______________________ Block: _____________

1. Place a (+) mark for the presence of these structures are present in these kinds of cells. If
these structures are absent, place a (-) mark.

Bacterial cells Plant cells Protists Animal cells

Plasma membrane
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printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Cell Wall

Plastids

DRAW EACH OF THE KINDS OF CELLS YOU HAVE OBSERVED. DO NOT FORGET TO
INCLUDE LABELS AND MAGNIFICATION TO YOUR DRAWINGS.

Prokaryotic Cells

Rod-shaped Bacteria Cocci-shaped bacteria

X_______ X_______

Sci. name: _____________________ Sci. name: _____________________

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 2. What differentiates prokaryotes from eukaryotes?

3. What are the shapes of the different bacteria that you’ve observed?
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As governed by R.A. 8293 and R.A. 10372, this material should not be
printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

Eukaryotic Cells — PROTISTS

Paramecium sp. Amoeba sp.

X_______ X_______

4. Please answer the table below:

Mode of Nucleus
Locomotion
Type(s) Number
Amoeba sp.
Paramecium
sp.

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 Eukaryotic Cells — PLANT CELLS

Onion bulb epidermal cells Squash Trichomes

This educational material is strictly for Bio 01L (General Biology 01

As governed by R.A. 8293 and R.A. 10372, this material should not be
printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

X_______ X_______

Sci. name: _____________________ Sci. name: _____________________

PLANT CELLS – plastids

Waterthyme leaf cells Potato Tuber cells

X_______ X_______

Sci. name: ____________________ _ Sci. name: _____________________

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 5. What is the purpose of the cell wall in the onion epidermal cell?

6. How many cells are seen in one squash trichome? Is the number constant in all other
This educational material is strictly for Bio 01L (General Biology 01

trichomes?

As governed by R.A. 8293 and R.A. 10372, this material should not be
printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

7. Define cytoplasmic streaming with respect to your observations in the Hydrilla leaf. What
is its purpose?

8. What specific kind of plastid did you observe in the potato tuber cells? Explain in terms
of your observations.

9. From your observation of plant cells, did you always see a nucleus clearly? Why? Why
not?

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 Eukaryotic Cells — ANIMAL CELLS

Human Red Blood Cells Human Small Intestine x.s.

This educational material is strictly for Bio 01L (General Biology 01

As governed by R.A. 8293 and R.A. 10372, this material should not be
printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

X_______ X_______

Sci. name: _____________________ Sci. name: _____________________

10. Why do human red blood cells don’t have nucleus?

11. What is the function of microvilli in the small intestine?

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 This educational material is strictly for Bio 01L (General Biology 01
Laboratory) for 1st semester A.Y. 2022- 2023 class use only.

REFERENCES:

University of San Carlos.

Arche, M.N., Inoc, D.C., Oquiñena, M.K., Parilla, R.B., Roble, N.D., Tambuli, A.E. et al. (2010).
Biology 10 Laboratory Manual. Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines: Biology Department,

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As governed by R.A. 8293 and R.A. 10372, this material should not be
printed, reproduced, or sold without permission from the authors.