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The Evolution of Civil Aircraft Design at

Bombardier: An Historic Perspective

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 The Evolution of Civil Aircraft Design at Bombardier:
An Historical Perspective

Guenther Goritschnig Askin T. Isikveren* Michel Lamothe Eric Munger

Senior Propulsion System Engineer Lead, Conceptual Design & Benchmarking Conceptual Design Structural Design
Advanced Product Development, Engineering & Product Development, Bombardier Aerospace
P.O. Box 6087, Station Centre-ville, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3C 3G9, Phone: (514) 855-5000, Fax: (514) 855-7302

ABSTRACT Montreal in 1974 introduced the manufacturer to

the rail transport industry. A series of lucrative
Through diversification, Bombardier Inc. has contracts and strategic acquisitions thereafter led
become a global leader in the transportation Bombardier to the forefront of this field.
business. Its aerospace division is at the forefront
of the civil business and regional aircraft markets In 1986, 12 years after first diversifying into the
with a current product offering consisting of the mass transportation industry, Bombardier
Lear, Challenger and Global business jets families, purchased Canadair from the Canadian
and the Q Series and CRJ Series of regional government. Established in 1944 by a small group
aircraft. The legacy companies that form of Canadian Vickers employees, Canadair is
Bombardier Aerospace have made significant steeped in Canadian aviation achievement.
contributions to the advancement of the aerospace Through several name changes including a spell
industry. The influence of this early innovation is under General Dynamics ownership, Canadair
apparent in Bombardier Aerospace’s latest aircraft introduced to the world numerous innovative and
designs. Bombardier Aerospace maintains its long-lived aircraft designs, many of which are still
competitive edge by using powerful computer flying to this day. Fig. 1 shows three of these
hardware and software to reduce design cycle time designs.
and permit first time quality. Risk-sharing
partnerships and concurrent engineering
techniques minimize the cost risks, while research
into viable technology ensures that the state of the
art is maintained. In addition, unique, aesthetically
pleasing and technically feasible design concepts
are explored as a means of differentiating
Bombardier products from the competition.
Fig. 1 Canadair’s legacy – CL-44 Tutor, CL-84
INTRODUCTION Dynavert and CL-600 Challenger from left to right

Bombardier Aerospace grew from very humble The privatization of Northern Ireland’s Shorts
origins. From his small workshop in Valcourt, Brothers PLC (Shorts) provided Bombardier with an
Quebec, Joseph-Armand Bombardier dreamed of opportunity to consolidate its aerospace activities,
inventing a motorized vehicle that could cope with and in 1989 Shorts joined the Bombardier industrial
the harsh winter conditions of rural Quebec. His family. A pioneer in the aviation industry having
invention of the tracked snowmobile in 1936 was developed several civil and military aircraft and
the catalyst that sparked today’s successful line of seaplanes, Shorts received the first ever aircraft
utilitarian and recreational vehicles. production contract to produce 6 Wright Flyers for
Wilbur and Orville Wright. The expertise gained
The*energy crisis of the early 1970’s coupled with a from over 80 years of aircraft design and
saturation of the snowmobile market resulted in manufacture complemented well that gained
Bombardier’s first foray into what would become through the Canadair acquisition.
the basis for its future growth: diversification. A
contract to supply subway cars to the city of A few months after purchasing Shorts from the
British government, Bombardier further expanded
*
Post-Doctoral Researcher its aerospace division by acquiring Learjet. This
Department of Aeronautics strategic transaction not only provided Bombardier
Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)
SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
with an established foothold in the United States.
The Learjet purchase also gave Bombardier access DESIGN PHILOSOPHY & COMMITMENT TO
to a complete business jet product line that fit in PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
well with its Canadair Challenger offering, and
allowed the use of a name that over the years has One of the most difficult tasks in the competitive
become synonymous with the business jet genre. environment of aircraft manufacturing and sales is
Fig. 2 below shows the first business jet developed to produce a vehicle comprising a particular mix of
by Learjet: the Model 23. design specifications at a price the market is willing
to absorb. Factors such as reliability,
maintainability, utility, perceived safety, efficiency,
operating costs, brand name loyalty and aesthetics
affect any predisposition a customer has to
purchasing an aircraft. In line with such
requirements, Bombardier Aerospace is
increasingly focusing on the incorporation of true
aircraft family concepts from the outset when
designing new aircraft products. This ensures a
Fig. 2 Model 23 – the first Learjet common basis for design, maintenance and
operating procedures. Furthermore, such a
The final member of the Bombardier Aerospace
common product range avails the opportunity to
family was acquired in 1992 in conjunction with the
promote a family upgrade path for operators. In
government of Ontario through the purchase of de
this respect, once the baseline design has
Havilland Canada from Boeing. In 1997, de
achieved a certain level of maturity, variant or
Havilland became fully owned by Bombardier.
derivative aircraft conceived concurrently with the
Founded in 1928 and a pioneer of STOL
original baseline can be strategically introduced to
technology, de Havilland’s innovative products not
the market, replacing the aging product line or
only assisted in opening up the Canadian north, but
targeting new niches.
also forged new market niches that capitalized on
the unique features of the de Havilland aircraft. Its Generally for aircraft manufacturers, an aircraft
expertise in the regional aviation industry family build strategy comprises some or all of the
complemented well Bombardier Aerospace’s following elements: (1) baseline or “clean-sheet”
product development strategy and growth into the aircraft; (2) variant(s); and (3) derivative(s). An
regional jet market. Fig. 3 shows three early de aircraft variant is defined as the development of a
Havilland designs. new aircraft product via the increase (or decrease)
of gross weight or the incorporation of
enhancements through any equipment/amenities
upgrade/improvement. Most importantly, a variant
design does not generate any changes to the
baseline aircraft external lines. In contrast, a
derivative is defined as the creation of a new
Figure 3 The de Havilland Beaver, Twin Otter & aircraft product that incorporates any or all of the
Dash 7 from left to right attributes that constitutes an aircraft variant, but
generates alterations to the baseline aircraft
Bombardier deliberately chose acquisition as the external lines through a fuselage stretch/shrink, any
way to quickly gain access to the technology it wing or empennage planform modifications or a
needed to ensure growth. The acquisitions power plant system change. To complicate
enhanced Bombardier’s position in the international matters, a derivative aircraft can be extensively
aerospace community and underlined its modified from the original baseline to the extent
commitment to employees, customers and that it is essentially a progenitor in its own right and
shareholders1. The success of this strategy can spawn a “new generation” family. Bombardier
resulted in significant growth in revenues and net Aerospace currently offers 24 aircraft products that
income over the next few years, and led to an cover into either baseline, variant or derivative
unprecedented launch of 14 new product offerings classifications (see Fig. 4 - overleaf).
in both the regional and business jet markets since
the inception of Bombardier Aerospace in 1986.

2
 Fig. 4 Aircraft product portfolio of Bombardier Aerospace today

A business jet airplane design must concurrently no further than around 700 nm (1300 km) apart;
fulfil a number of requirements as dictated by however, recent events have steered mainline
today’s discerning clientele: a premium on operators to seriously consider equipment types
passenger comfort, a high degree of operational exhibiting ranges in excess of 2000 nm (3700 km).
readiness and exceptional performance Tying in with the economics aspect, reliability and
characteristics. Superior performance attributes maintainability are also two other major concerns
afford a great deal of operational flexibility. This for operators. This means future regional aircraft
aspect encompasses an ability to operate in and design proposals need to maximize the edict of
out of relatively short airfields, of expediently integrated modular design. A final consideration
climbing to cruising altitudes above inclement involves commonality. If an aircraft manufacturer
weather or avoiding congested airways altogether, supplies a fleet of aircraft that vary in size,
and cruising with excellent fuel consumption operators emphasize the importance of extensive
efficiency at fast speeds. In a quest to offer greater commonality; this equates into parallel commonality
operational flexibility, Bombardier Aerospace of the airframe, engines and even crew ratings.
manufactures new business jets that typically Such considerations formulated the basis for hard
operate at speeds of M0.80-0.90, can attain 41000 design specifications of both the turboprop Q
ft and higher initial cruise altitudes, takeoff from Series and turbofan CRJ regional families.
1200-1800 m (approx. 4000-6000 ft) runways and
cover distances up to 6500 nm (12000 km). One of Bombardier Aerospace’s aircraft product
strategies is to offer complete product families,
Commercial transport design, especially those thereby assuring the best possible fit with each
vehicles dedicated to commuter and regional operator’s individual aircraft requirements. Implicit
operations, calls for an entirely different philosophy in this strategy is a high degree of fleet
compared to executive transports. Great emphasis commonality, so [regional] operators can reduce
is placed on operating economics and the ability to their costs of training, ground support equipment,
lift a significant payload as efficiently as possible. spare parts and maintenance equipment, by
Today, regional aircraft typically service city pairs acquiring additional Bombardier Aerospace aircraft,

3
instead of competitive products from other jet product offering. Established in the early 1960’s
manufacturers2. Similarly, business jet operators’ with the goal of developing the first light jet
growth requirements can be met by trading up in a designed specifically for civilian executive
particular Bombardier Aerospace business jet transport, William P. Lear and his development
family. Bombardier Aerospace’s current civil team introduced the Lear Jet Model 23 to the world.
market product offering includes the Learjet, With a military aircraft heritage, the Model 23
Challenger and Global families of business jet combined a stylish appearance with high
aircraft and the Q Series and CRJ Series of performance and defined the “look” for business
regional aircraft as shown in Fig. 4 on the previous aircraft from that point forward.
page.
The avant-garde design of the Model 23 spawned
When producing the best aircraft proposal, from the over 20 derivative and variant offspring that
viewpoint of an engineering and technical ideal, all incorporated many innovative design features from
new product development initiatives should be the original model. Perhaps most notable of these
clean-sheet designs. This mindset is quite design features are the sleek lines of the Lear
impractical from a business case perspective products, which are accentuated by a wrap-around
because fundamentally, cost is the reason why windshield design first seen on the Model 23. A
aircraft manufacturers do not readily commit to radical departure from the conventional cage-like
such ambitious programs. One method to structure of contemporary aircraft windshields, the
substantiate the existence of any new company aesthetic look presented interesting design
design initiative is to show that additional costs can challenges due to the forces acting upon this area
be avoided through reduction of risk. Today, risk is of the aircraft.
mitigated via the application of familiar design
methods and procedures, thus, making the Another departure from contemporary design was
outcome of the project predictable in terms of the introduction of an outward-opening, two-piece
required time and resources. Bombardier clamshell passenger door. Pressurized aircraft of
Aerospace’s approach is to produce the widest the time used heavy inward-opening plug-type
possible array of product offerings using familiar doors to minimize the risk of decompression during
aircraft platforms whilst vigorously minimizing the flight. The Lear concept significantly reduced the
penalties of design off-optimality. In this way, weight of the door and to this day has proven to be
Bombardier Aerospace departs from the traditional very reliable.
approach to aircraft configuration design and
optimization. In 1976, the design teams at Lear established a
new standard in business jet aircraft with the
To complement the philosophy of maximum certification of Models 24 and 25 to an altitude of
commonality, great scope is given for Bombardier 51000 ft. This allowed the Lear aircraft to take
Aerospace to boost revenue potential by expanding advantage of lower fuel consumption, shorter and
the company’s market coverage. This is more direct routes and lower air traffic associated
accomplished through the generation of aircraft with flying at this altitude. In 2003, only a handful
product families that can service both executive of aircraft can capitalize on the benefits of this
and commercial roles. It is evident that a broader benchmark.
family concept for product portfolio enhancement
does require an element of design trade-off. Thought to reduce drag and improve aircraft
Bombardier Aerospace’s goal has been and will performance, winglets were introduced on the
continue to be finding the best balance between Model 28 in 1977. Although opinions differ about
competitive aircraft attributes and an acceptable the benefits of using winglets, there is a certain
level of financial commitment to new programs. amount of sex appeal associated with these
The success of Bombardier Aerospace has proven devices that complemented the image associated
to be so lucrative that other aircraft manufacturers with Lear aircraft. By incorporating winglets in their
are seeing the wisdom in adopting such a product designs from that point forward, Lear once again
development strategy. pioneered what is now an apparent staple for
modern small jet design.
THE LEAR BUSINESS JET FAMILY
In 1992, the first “clean sheet” Lear design since
The 6 to 8 passenger Learjet family comprises the the Model 23 was announced. The first business
lighter end of the Bombardier Aerospace business jet to be certified jointly to FAA and JAA standards,

4
the 8 to 10 passenger 2100 nm (3890 km) Model type of wing permits flight approaching the speed of
45 was designed and manufactured using modern sound while burning less fuel in the process. In
methods that halved the parts count compared to 1978, the Challenger 600 became the first ever civil
earlier models. In addition, these techniques aircraft to fly with a CFD-designed supercritical
dramatically improved quality by reducing part wing4. Today’s Challenger 604 is still equipped
rejection rate to 1.3% from a rate of 20% using with the same wing suggesting that the technology
earlier techniques3. on the original Challenger 600 may have been
slightly ahead of its time for a business jet.

Another feature that distinguished the Challenger

600 from contemporary designs was its wide-body
cross-section. This provided the user with
sufficient cabin comfort and room-to-move
commiserate with the long-range mission for which
this class of aircraft was designed. With the
Fig. 5 Learjet 31A, Learjet 45 and Learjet 60 from exception of converted airliners, the Challenger
left to right 600/604 cross-section remains one of the widest in
business aviation to this day.
Fig. 5 above depicts the current Learjet product
offering. In addition to the Learjet 45, the business
The Challenger 600 concept advanced civil aviation
jet family includes the 6 to 10 passenger 1450 nm
with several more innovations. The design
(2690 km) Learjet 31A and the 6 to 10 passenger
incorporated carbon brakes in lieu of the more
2500 nm (4630 km) Learjet 60. A Learjet 45
conventional steel brakes of the time. Fully
derivative, the Learjet 40, is expected to enter
powered flight controls were installed, for the first
service at the end of 2003. This 1800 nm (3330
time, on a business aircraft. The Challenger 600
km) aircraft is 0.62 m (2 ft) shorter than the Learjet
was also the first business jet to conform to
45 and is intended as an eventual replacement for
damage tolerant design principles.
the older Learjet 31A in the light business jet
market niche.
Fig. 6 shows the
Challenger 604, the
THE CHALLENGER BUSINESS JET FAMILY fifth iteration of the
original Challenger
Bombardier Aerospace’s mid-scale business jet is 600. Modernization of
represented by the Challenger family. This group is the aircraft in the mid-
comprised of the Challenger 300, the Challenger 1990’s to obtain the
604 and the Challenger 800 aircraft. Fig. 6 Challenger 604 604 version included
an upgraded avionics
One of the longest-lived members of the
suite, improved hot and high performance and
Bombardier Aerospace civil aircraft family is the
reduced fuel consumption.
Challenger 600 Series. Loosely based on the
Learstar 600, a concept stemming from William The largest member of the Challenger family of
Lear’s reasoning that business travelers would business jets is the Challenger 800. A variant of
demand and be willing to pay for airliner level the CRJ200 Regional Jet (which was derived from
comfort on a private aircraft, Canadair began a later variant of the Challenger 600), the
working on the predecessor of the Challenger 604: Challenger 800 is offered in two versions. The
the Challenger 600. Challenger 800 executive version offers a 2935 nm
(5435 km) business jet with comfortable seating for
In the early 1970’s, advances in aerodynamic
up to nineteen passengers. The 2070 nm (3830
design contributed significantly to the success of
km) Challenger 800 Corporate Shuttle variant
the Challenger 600. The evolution of the high by-
accommodates eighteen to thirty passengers in first
pass turbofan engine provided the Challenger 601
class comfort. Fig. 7 depicts a typical cabin layout
with a quieter and more fuel-efficient powerplant.
for the Challenger 800 executive aircraft variant.
Moreover, using advanced transonic CFD methods,
a supercritical wing was designed that allowed for a
thicker cross-section while exhibiting the drag
characteristics of a thinner airfoil. In essence, this

5
 was then concluded that a clean sheet design
would be a better approach. The requirements for
performance and comfort were set to exceed
anything the competition had to offer including
crossing the Pacific at Mach 0.85 and the Atlantic
at Mach 0.88.
Fig. 7 Floor layout for Challenger 800 The Global Express was
officially launched in
The newest member of Bombardier Aerospace’s December 1993, and
Challenger family of business jets, scheduled for the first flight occurred
entry into service at the end of 2003, is the clean in October 1996. The
sheet design Challenger 300 (see Fig. 8). From its exacting requirements
inception at the end of the 1990’s, a specific market of the Global Express
niche was targeted. Following an intensive 24 Fig. 9 Global Express
offered significant
month research program to clearly establish the challenges to the designer. The key requirements
needs of the market, the characteristics of the of range in excess of 6500 nm (12 000 km), the
aircraft were crystallized. The aircraft was to carry largest cabin for a business jet design and cruise at
8 passengers 3110 nm (5770 km) from coast to Mach 0.85/0.88 drove the fuel requirements for this
coast across the continental United States in a aircraft.
cabin with stand-up headroom. Packaging all of
this into an aircraft To keep mission fuel to a minimum, a new more
topped with a efficient engine/wing-to-fuselage system
competitive price combination was needed. After a series of design
would give the owner investigations, simulations and wind tunnel tests,
of a Challenger 300 Bombardier Aerospace achieved this overall
Fig. 8 Challenger 300 excellent value for the system efficiency through special design features.
flight test aircraft money. Using CFD methods developed in-house over a
period of 30 years, an advanced transonic wing
Bombardier Aerospace accomplished this by design, characterized by a high sweep angle of 34o,
bringing together some of the best available and an aspect ratio of 8.04 and providing higher
proven technologies at the beginning of the project. aerodynamic efficiency at high lift coefficients, was
In addition, development time was reduced by achieved. This was coupled with a fully integrated
introducing key suppliers to the design process propulsion system characterized by area ruling of
early in the conceptual phase, a strategy developed the tail section which delays formation of channel
on the Global Express program. flow shock waves up to speeds of Mach 0.85.
Bombardier Aerospace invested over US$1 billion
THE GLOBAL BUSINESS JET FAMILY to develop the Global Express. Derivatives of this
aircraft are thus being studied to maximize this
The Global family represents the upper end of the investment and to continue to meet future
Bombardier Aerospace business jet product line. customers’ exacting range and payload
The flagship of this family, the Global Express, is requirements with optimal top of the line business
the first design to bear the corporate name. jet solutions. To that end, Bombardier launched
Specifically designed to meet the transportation the second member of the Global family, the Global
needs of business and government leaders in the 5000, in 2001. This Global Express derivative is
global environment, this ultra long-range twin designed to fill the niche between the Challenger
turbofan offers the longest range with the largest 604 and the Ultra Long-Range Global Express.
cabin at the highest speeds from the shortest The main external difference from the Global
runways of any available business jet5. Express is a shortening of the fuselage by 0.81 m
(32 in). However, a clever redistribution of the
The Global Express concept (see Fig. 9) emerged internal layout results in a passenger cabin
from a study conducted in 1990 to design a follow- decrease of only 0.2 m (8 in) over the original
on to the Challenger 600 Series with improved Global Express. With a still air range of 5000 nm
range and speed characteristics. The study (9260 km) and improved field and climb
showed that only modest improvements at performance, the Global 5000 will fly non-stop from
relatively high costs were achievable when using Continental Europe to Central USA with eight
the Challenger 600 Series as a starting point. It

6
passengers and a crew of three. Entry into service significant increase and acceptance by the
is expected for the fourth quarter of 2004. passengers of the regional aircraft market. Building
on this success, Bombardier introduced the “Q”
THE Q SERIES REGIONAL FAMILY Series of aircraft in 1998. The “Q” stands for quiet
passenger cabin, dispelling the notion that propeller
Established in 1928, the first original design of the driven aircraft have to be noisy for the passenger.
de Havilland team in Canada was the Beaver DHC- The current product offering in the Q Series of
2. This aircraft was designed to cater to the regional aircraft includes the Q200, Q300, and
challenging requirements of the Canadian North. Q400 (see Fig. 10).
Characterized by ruggedness and an ability to
operate out of limited size, unprepared landing
strips under weather extremes, the Beaver
achieved worldwide success with civil and military
operators. A scaled up Beaver, the Otter, followed
with similar performance at double the payload. A
further significant stretch and installation of two Fig. 10 Bombardier Aerospace’s Q200, Q300 and
turbine engines resulted in the popular commuter Q400 from left to right
known as the Twin Otter. The Twin Otter was
followed by the Dash 7, a 50-seater aimed at the The newest member of the Q Series is the Q400.
STOL commuter market. With a common type rating to the Q200 and Q300,
the Q400 is equipped with the most advanced
A design feature of all early de Havilland products, turboprop engine currently in production. This
starting with the Beaver, was their STOL capability. aircraft is designed to meet the requirements of
Although the term is now used with less precision, regional airlines by providing more seats and
a STOL aircraft was designed to clear a 50 ft greater speed on short-haul, high-density routes.
obstacle in approximately 1000 feet under takeoff With cruise speeds in excess of 350 kt (650 km/h),
power, descend on a 7.5o glide path and land over the Q400 requires the same time as most jets to
a 15 m (50 ft) obstacle in a total distance of 1000 ft cover airline routes under 450 nm (830 km).
using maximum performance techniques. STOL Seating 68 to 78 passengers, the Q400 provides
performance was intended to ease congestion at airlines with great revenue-generating potential by
crowded airports using “stub” runways away from extending an airline’s range beyond traditional
existing traffic routes. Small communities could turboprop distances. The Q400 key features
now afford the cost of runways catering to this type include the PW150A, a FADEC-equipped 3-shaft
of aircraft; thus opening new markets to air travel. turboshaft engine rated at 5071 SHP flat rated to
The low external noise level of later de Havilland 37.4oC that produces nearly twice the take-off
designs starting with the Dash 7 is also an power of older turboprop engines while being
important consideration when operating from nearly 50% more fuel-efficient. The all-composite,
airfields close to built-up areas. 6-bladed, slow turning, high-technology propellers
mounted further out on the wing produce less noise
With the advent of the PW100 family of engines,
than smaller propellers turning at higher RPMs.
the Dash 8 line of aircraft was conceived. The
Cabin Noise is further reduced by the installation of
Dash 8-100 was designed in the early 1980’s to
an active noise and vibration suppression system
respond to operators’ need for a modern twin
that reduces cabin noise by up to 8 dBA SPL at the
engine 30 passenger aircraft. With two PW120
noisiest seat location. This system, using the
engines installed, the Dash 8 Series provided for
cancellation of waves principle, results in the least
lower life cycle costs when compared to the 4
perceptible interior noise and vibration of any
engine Dash 7 type aircraft. The Series 100 was
turboprop in the world, lower in fact than many
followed by the 50 to 56 passenger Series 300,
commercial jet interiors.
enhanced performance Series 200 and finally the
68 to 78 passenger Series 400. There are now Because of these features, the Q400 rewrites the
more than 650 Dash 8 aircraft in operation role of the turboprop in the regional aircraft market.
worldwide with a fleet in-service flying time totaling The attractiveness of this aircraft is perhaps best
more than thirteen million hours. stated by a Bombardier official who quipped “The
Q400 offers the winning combination of turboprop
It is probably no exaggeration to state that the economics and jet speed and comfort.”
Dash 8 Series of aircraft is responsible for the

7
THE CRJ SERIES REGIONAL FAMILY extra savings for the operators in crew training,
maintenance operations and spare parts.
In 1989, Bombardier Aerospace entered the
commercial aircraft market with the launch of the A simple stretch of the
Canadair Regional Jet CRJ100 (see Fig. 11). This CRJ700 produced the
revolutionary aircraft, based on the successful latest member of the
Challenger 600 Series of business jets, was the CRJ Series of regional
first ever jet-powered transport for regional aircraft, the CRJ900
commercial airlines. Economical to operate, this 50 (see Fig. 13). The 86-
seat aircraft has been credited with opening new seater has two
markets that would otherwise have been Fig. 13 The CRJ900 additional over-wing
unprofitable for the larger aircraft of mainline emergency doors that were added to cater for the
carriers, and was capable of longer flights than increase number of passengers. An aft service
typical regional turboprops of the time. door was added to ease cleaning and galley
replenishment. The increase in fuselage length led
The CRJ100 and to a bigger volume for underfloor baggage and aft
later CRJ200 were baggage resulting in more stowage room per
designed specifically passenger. With the addition of the CRJ900 to the
to provide the airlines family, Bombardier Aerospace now offers a full
with the flexibility to range of aircraft from 50 passengers up to 86
operate from hubs or passengers, giving the operator the extra flexibility
to operate non-stop for routes that are growing in size.
Fig. 11 The CRJ100/200 between cities in
smaller markets. PRODUCT PLACEMENT – BRIDGING THE
Featuring a wide fuselage body and high bypass MARKETPLACE AND DESIGN SENSIVITIES
ratio engines for superior passenger comfort and
operating efficiency, and with a blockspeed 40% to It is an inescapable fact that by virtue of supporting
50% faster than contemporary competing Learjet, Challenger, Global, the Q Series and CRJ
turboprops, CRJ100/200 operators are able to family platforms, Bombardier Aerospace services a
open new routes, increase flight frequencies and wide gamut of markets and mission roles, thus,
offer regular non-stop flights on low-density routes. maintaining a unique posture in the industry. In
order to generate such an assortment of product
The success of the 50 offerings, specialists must realize an atypical level
passenger CRJ100/200 of expertise. This added sophistication in technical
led to the development of design synthesis actually becomes an asset such
a 70 passenger derivative that it promotes innovative solutions, which, more
called the CRJ700 see often than not, cross-pollinates both commercial
Fig. 12). Launched in and business aircraft fields.
Fig. 12 The CRJ700 1997, this aircraft is
characterized by a growth Cabin living volume is an important consideration
to the fuselage length and wing span. A departure since it is one of the primary design drivers.
from the original 50 seat design is the incorporation Usable volume for cabin has a direct correlation to
of leading-edge slats to improve field performance. how amenable (or not) the living space will be
In addition, the 9% lower specific fuel consumption perceived by passengers when the mission is being
of the GE CF34-8C1 engine relative to that of the undertaken. In the context of commercial
CRJ100/200, coupled with the increased number of transports where a known number of passengers
passengers, further decreases the already mostly predetermines the cabin length, the living
competitive seat-mile operating cost of the volume really means a sufficient amount of
CRJ100/200. Inside the cabin, Bombardier headroom or possibly seat width resulting from a
Aerospace raised the windows by 0.1 m (4.8 in) more generous cross-sectional area. For business
and lowered the floor 0.03 m (1 in), giving a more aircraft, cabin volume means an ability to stand up
comfortable view of the outside while offering more and walk comfortably from one end of the cabin to
shoulder and head room. Not to be forgotten, the the other, and, to permit easy access to amenities.
common crew qualification between the Fig. 14 illustrates the relationship between relative
CRJ100/200 and the CRJ700 further translates into cabin cross-sectional area (normalized against the

8
Global Express) and design range for both expression is a product of both the overall power
commercial and business mission roles. plant efficiency (η) and the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) of
the vehicle taken at typical LRC speed schedule,
average cruise altitude and average AUW. The
overall power plant efficiency varies with both
throttle setting and cruise speed; in general, speed
has a greater effect on η than throttle setting, and η
improves with increasing speed.

Fig. 14 Comparison of cabin cross-sections for

business and commercial aircraft

A family of commercial aircraft displays tendencies

of similar cabin cross-sections. This circumstance
arises from the edict of commonality, since the
operator wants an ability of not only benefiting from Fig. 15 Investigating variation of en route
product similarity, but wishes to offer seamless efficiency for business and commercial aircraft
travel (familiarity of cabin) to passengers whether (LRC and typical AUW).
they are travelling in a small or large aircraft
equipment type. In stark contrast, business aircraft Fig. 15 above compares η.(L/D) and design ranges
display clusters of unique cross-section qualities for the Learjet, Challenger, Global and CRJ
according to the market segment in which they families. It is immediately evident that there exists
serve. Business aircraft design is always about a significant relationship between the need for
finding the balance between cabin comfort, improved vehicular en route efficiency as the
operational efficiency and ability for high- specification design range becomes larger.
performance. Generally, the light to midsize category business
aircraft operates at η.(L/D) values of 15-20% lower
Here, one salient aspect of how Bombardier than super midsize to large aircraft. In contrast,
Aerospace has capitalised on progenitive once mission requirements call for Trans-Pacific
characteristics in its aircraft product portfolio can be range, the expected improvement in η.(L/D) is quite
given. As can be gauged in Fig. 14, it is aggressive at 25-30%. Increasing range further to
reasonable to conclude that suitable business conduct truly global destinations requires an
aircraft cabin cross-section size varies additional improvement of 5-10% in η.(L/D).
monotonically with design range for light to super Regional turbofan aircraft demonstrate no striking
midsize or even large business aircraft market variation in η.(L/D) according to scale effect
segments. Thereafter, the requirement for cross- (passenger carrying capacity). Nonetheless, it is
section size becomes constant for larger highlighted that a relatively high value for η.(L/D)
categories. The most interesting observation is must be maintained in order to promote frugal
that suitable turbofan regional cabin cross-sections operating economics via lower fuel burn results.
have been found to be compatible with the large to Fig. 15 indicates that a well-balanced regional
ultra-long range categories, thus, demonstrating
turbofan design should generate η.(L/D)
opportunity for synergy in aircraft build strategy.
efficiencies at least equal to super midsize to large
category business jets.
In order to gain a good insight of what the target
performance requirements are for given mission
Speed is an attribute Bombardier Aerospace has
roles, one can elect to compare aircraft products
always considered to be an important measure of
using the so-called range parameter6 (cited in this
vehicular flexibility. Except for the Q Series
paper as an en route efficiency parameter). This
turboprop family, all platforms - business aircraft

9
and regional turbofans alike - can perform typical
cruise speed schedules of at least Mach 0.80. The
advantages with a faster speed schedule are that
they create possibilities in conducting further time
and cost function optimization. Speed flexibility
presents operators an opportunity to either reduce
block fuel by accepting a slight increase in flight
time due to a slower LRC speed, or, for those
occasions where block times must be reduced for
the sake of on-time dependability or convenience,
flying at a faster schedule will produce shorter
travel times. Reduction in block time would
typically range between 5 minutes and 15 minutes
for regional turbofans to as much as 30 minutes to
60 minutes for business jets for short and long Fig. 16 Survey of structural efficiencies for business
distance missions respectively. and commercial aircraft

Examination of vehicular en route efficiencies INNOVATIONS IN THE ENGINEERING

permits some notion to what extent the cascading METHOD
influence of engine and aerodynamic soundness
has on the fuel fraction required to complete a Bombardier Aerospace has had to face many
given mission range. Another influence on the challenges to remain a leader in an increasingly
mission fuel fraction is aircraft empty weight; the uncompromising aerospace industry. To maintain
compounding effect of incremental fuel burn (need a competitive edge, design cycle times are reduced
to carry fuel to burn fuel) can become one of the in order to get the latest product to the market as
prime design sensitivity drivers particularly for very soon as possible. In addition, development costs
long-range operations. One widely recognized for modern aircraft have become quite imposing
figure of merit in weights engineering is the empty making new product development a very risky
weight fraction, which is a comparison between the venture from a corporation viewpoint. For
aircraft operational empty weight (OEW for Bombardier Aerospace, these obstacles are
commercial transports or BOW for business exacerbated by the fact that the company is
aircraft) and the MTOW. One can appreciate the comprised of four design and manufacturing sites
lower this figure of merit value becomes the better located in three countries on two continents. To
structural efficiency will materialize. The general surmount these challenges, Bombardier Aerospace
trend observed from historical data is the structural has had to marry state of the art design tools with
efficiency of aircraft improves with increasing sizing innovative engineering processes while maintaining
or MTOW. the lean approach to aircraft design and
manufacturing.
Fig. 16 shows a diminishing trend in empty weight
fraction as design range increases for business Over the past fifteen years, the near-exponential
aircraft. This can be explained by a concerted advances in computer capabilities have been a
effort to steadily drive structural weight down since boon for the aircraft design industry. Through the
excess weight magnifies fuel burn with an ever- use of supercomputers and sophisticated design
increasing long-range mission requirement. In and analysis software, the virtual design
contrast, the commercial transports show little environment has revolutionized the way modern
change – modest improvements in structural aircraft are developed. Analysis tools such as
efficiency takes place by virtue of stretching the CFD, FEM and CAD/CAM solid modeling design
fuselage of an existing baseline and creating a new tools have been instrumental in dramatically
vehicle with a higher relative useful load increase reducing design cycle time and improving first time
against a more modest relative increase in empty design quality.
weight.
Dassault Systemes’ CATIA solid modeling software
has become the standard for Bombardier
Aerospace CAD/CAM operations. Far more than
just a digital drafting board, CATIA is the foundation
for every phase of the design, manufacturing and

10
product support processes. Everyone from effective and competitive technologies for current
designers to machinists on the shop floor can and future aircraft development programs. A
consult a complete real time digital mock-up dedicated team of engineers researches the
meaning everyone has access to the latest design industry to ensure that all the perceived gaps in
plans. Through this technology, a more technology with Bombardier Aerospace competitors
collaborative approach to aircraft design and are addressed. Any noteworthy technology is
manufacture is the norm. validated by the Bombardier Aerospace team
through Technology Demonstrators, and if the
Once a virtual model is established, the design is technology fits into the corporate strategy, it is then
validated through analysis. The power of the incorporated into existing Bombardier Aerospace
super-computer dramatically improves the practices.
efficiency of this process. For example, several
wing models can be analyzed and fine-tuned using As the technology employed in aircraft design is
CFD methods in order to find the design optimum. available to all aircraft manufacturers and aircraft of
CFD combines fluid dynamic theory, applied particular categories are, to some extent, similar in
mathematics and powerful computers to simulate construction and performance, there is a need to
the motion of fluid around objects. The optimal differentiate oneself from the competition. To that
result is then validated through wind tunnel testing. end, Bombardier Aerospace incorporates the
However, what used to take 20000 hours of testing science of industrial design in developing new
in the wind tunnel using once conventional products. An industrial designer combines general
methods now typically takes one-tenth of the time technical expertise with art to stylistically and
with the use of CFD5. innovatively develop a design that meets the
requirements of an end user. The role of the
To address the challenges of high development industrial designer at Bombardier Aerospace is to
costs and rapid development time, Bombardier generate unique, aesthetic and technically feasible
Aerospace effectively employs two sound ideas that will differentiate Bombardier Aerospace
strategies: risk-sharing partnerships and concurrent designs from those of the competition, thus
engineering principles. The risk and high assisting Bombardier Aerospace in maintaining its
development costs associated with introducing new competitive edge. Fig. 17 shows a typical industrial
aircraft to the market can be prohibitive. design study for a business jet interior.
Bombardier Aerospace thus tackles new designs
through a consortium of risk-sharing partnerships.
Through this type of business and development
arrangement, the strategic partners assume
responsibility of the development costs of their
portion of the design and share in the sales profits
when the aircraft comes to market. Such an
arrangement permits Bombardier Aerospace to
minimize the costs and risks as much as possible
while allowing the pursuit of its development goals.

The risk-sharing approach to aircraft development

results in a concurrent engineering design
approach by default. Concurrent engineering
brings together the specialists from many different
disciplines including engineering, manufacturing,
marketing and procurement, to name but a few, into Fig. 17 Industrial Design study of business jet
an IPDT to develop the aircraft design. As designs interior
are conceived and developed, team members
review the ideas and provide feedback and POSSIBLE FUTURE DIRECTION OF
recommendations. This process results in fewer AIRCRAFT PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
assembly problems and a superior final product
conforming to the overall design criteria. The current era of aerospace vehicle design is
characterized by incremental advances towards a
To remain competitive, Bombardier Aerospace
well-recognized technological limitation of
makes a concerted effort to keep abreast of cost-

11
performance and potential for revenue. Since this numbers and production processes, but is
progression of improvement cannot go on envisioned to be a global synergism. The maxim of
indefinitely, a point in time will occur where the ultra-commonality is expected to pervade all
incremental improvement does not satisfy the need disciplines, i.e. technical – stress analysis models,
for a requisite return-on-investment. As a result, aerodynamics studies including CFD and
the aerospace industry will initially look towards windtunnel models, rigs, simulators, etc.;
redefining such limitations by using alternative procurement – permits the negotiation of leaner
technologies within the context of a conventional unit costs from suppliers since the bill of material
market, e.g. passive and active drag reduction for many aircraft types becomes more
initiatives, fly-by-wire flight controls, etc. Once this homogenous; operations and certification –
approach is completely exhausted, either a radical common type ratings, can dramatically rationalize
transformation of traditional market segments, or, flight test commitments and most new aircraft will
the creation of completely new market niches will appear as AFM supplements; product support –
emerge, e.g. high-transonic and supersonic flight. common spares and maintenance practices, and,
much greater reliability; and, marketing – can offer
Until the industry is compelled to undertake such a aircraft products for an attractive unit price or strike
dramatic change in technology, an all- more lucrative fleet mix deals.
encompassing universal build strategy may
propagate as the new standard for almost all SUMMARY
aircraft manufacturers in the near future. This
approach is coined here as “progenitive” From its humble beginnings as a manufacturer of
techniques in aircraft product synthesis. snowmobiles, Bombardier has, through
Essentially, it is a design strategy aimed at diversification, become a global leader in the
producing unique “offspring” that suit a particular transportation business. Its foray into aerospace
customer’s requirements from a standard array of manufacturing began in 1986 and continued
basic units or “seed assemblies”. These seed through to 1992 with the acquisition of over 250
assemblies are essentially common parts, sub- years of aerospace design and manufacturing
assemblies and systems. Fundamentally, from a experience in Canadair, Learjet, Shorts and de
set of seed assemblies, predetermined modification Havilland. A leader in the civil business and
strategies would be followed to generate new regional aircraft markets, Bombardier Aerospace’s
assemblies such that it is possible to produce an current product offering consists of 24 derivative or
“extended” family concept much wider and variant aircraft that are part of either the Lear,
ambitious in scope than what has ever been Challenger or Global business jets families, or the
considered before. Q Series or CRJ Series of regional aircraft
groupings.
Progenitive techniques in aircraft design can be
viewed as a new product development Bombardier Aerospace’s legacy companies have
methodology that would significantly reduce time made significant contributions to the advancement
and cost whilst ensuring maximum vehicular of the aerospace industry with the incorporation of
efficiency. Most aircraft manufacturers employ a several innovative concepts in their products.
simple version of this approach today. However, Defining the business jet concept, pioneering the
minimal forethought is expended at the time of regional aircraft market and revolutionizing that
baseline aircraft creation. Instead, the variants and market with the introduction of market-specific
derivatives are conceived and subsequently turbofans are among the most noteworthy
introduced into service in approximately five to achievements. The influence of these early
seven year cycles. Simply stated, progenitive innovations is apparent in Bombardier Aerospace’s
techniques call for the conception of all imaginable latest designs.
(or otherwise yet unforeseen) aircraft products “on
paper” in time zero and not in a piecemeal fashion To maintain a competitive edge, Bombardier
over several years. Aerospace employs state of the art computer
hardware and software, which reduces design
The premise for progenitive techniques is that each cycle time and permits first time quality. Risk-
extended family member would employ maximum sharing partnerships and concurrent engineering
commonality and must still be suitably close to the techniques minimize the cost risks to Bombardier
“optimum” as possible. Maximum commonality for Aerospace associated with new product
progenitive families is not only concerned with part development while allowing the company to pursue

12
its development goals. A concerted effort is made 3. Friedman, M. “How Bombardier Created Sleek
to research viable technology that could be Global Express”. Computing Canada. February
strategically introduced to the design and 3 1997; Vol.23 No. 3.
manufacture process. In addition, unique, 4. Hiscocks, R. D. “A Case Study in Aircraft
aesthetically pleasing and technically feasible Design – The de Havilland Family of STOL
design concepts are explored as a means of Commuter Aircraft”. AIAA Professional Study
differentiating Bombardier Aerospace products from Series; [no date available].
the competition.
5. Logie, S. “Winging It: The Making of the
With ever-increasing development costs and a Canadair Challenger”. Toronto, Ontario:
Macmillan Canada; 1992.
demand for lower operating costs by the end user,
future aircraft development will likely move away 6. Neil, R. D. “From Learjets to Challengers: The
from the point design to an approach using Biz Jet Story”. AIAA. 1978: 78-3010.
progenitive techniques. This new product 7. Bombardier Aerospace (Ed.). “About Us”
synthesis methodology would significantly [Homepage of Bombardier Aerospace],
rationalize development time and cost while [Online]. Available:
ensuring maximum vehicular efficiency. http://www.aerospace.bombardier.com/ [2002,
October 23].
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8. Latulippe, I. “Bombardier Aerospace Virtual
Product Definition: Achievements and Future
1. Pickler, R., Milberry, L. “Canadair: The First 50
Directions”. COE NewsNet – August 2001
Years”. Toronto, Ontario: CANAV Books; 1995.
[Homepage of COE], [Online]. Available:
2. Allan Austen Communications. ed. “Aero http://www.coe.org/ [2002, October 23].
Vision”. Bombardier Aerospace Group, Winter
9. Wings Over Kansas (Ed.). “Outstanding Aircraft
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Built by the Big 4: Bombardier/Learjet Aircraft
3. Szurovy, G. “Learjets”. Osceola, WI: Company” [Homepage of Wings Over Kansas],
Motorbooks International Publishers & [Online]. Available:
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html [2002, October 23].
4. Kafyeke, F.; Mavriplis, F. “CFD for the
Aerodynamic Design of Bombardier's Global
Express High Performance Jet”. Proceedings of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
AIAA 15th Applied Aerodynamics Conference;
1997 June 23-25; Atlanta, GA: AIAA 97-2269. The authors would like to express their thanks to
the following people who helped in the preparation
5. Hoffman, K. W.; Clignett, P. “Designing the of this document:
Global Express”. Proceedings of the AIAA 1st
Aircraft Engineering, Technology and D. Couture, Global Express, Chief Technical
Operations Congress; 1995 September 19-21; Integrator, Bombardier Aerospace (Toronto)
Los Angeles, CA: AIAA 95-3953.
6. Torenbeek, E., “Optimum Cruise Performance A. Galin, Industrial Design, Advanced Product
of Subsonic Transport Aircraft”, Report LR-787, Development, Bombardier Aerospace (Montreal)
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of
Aerospace Engineering, the Netherlands, F. Kafyeke, Manager, Advanced Aerodynamics,
March 1995. Bombardier Aerospace (Montreal)

ADDITIONAL SOURCES D. Lye, Senior Engineer, Flight Sciences,

Bombardier Aerospace (Toronto)
1. Bombardier Aerospace Business Aircraft.
“Product Guide - Learjet 45”. Dorval, Quebec: B. Ugolini, Senior Conceptual Design Engineer,
Bombardier Aerospace; 1996. Advanced Product Development, Bombardier
Aerospace (Montreal)
2. Bombardier Inc. “Bombardier - A dream with
international reach”. Montreal, Quebec:
Bombardier Inc.; 1992.

13
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AFM Airplane Flight Manual

AUW All-Up Weight
BOW Basic Operating Weight
CAD/CAM Computer Aided Design/Computer
Aided Manufacturing
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CRJ Canadair Regional Jet
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FADEC Full-Authority Digital Engine Control
FEM Finite Element Modeling
IPDT Integrated Product Design Team
JAA Joint Aviation Authorities
LRC Long Range Cruise
MTOW Maximum Take-Off Weight
OEW Operational Empty Weight
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
SPL Sound Pressure Level
STOL Short Take Off and Landing

14