Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the different readings that support the variables

used in this study.

Related Literatures

These serve as links between the readers and the studies already done,

tells about aspects that have been already established or concluded by other

authors and also give chances to appreciate the evidences that have already

been collected by previous researches, and projects the current research work

in the proper perspective.

The following are the select related literatures:

Solid Waste Management: The Relevance

The concern on implementing the proper solid waste management has

been a long battle in the Philippines as well on the other parts of the world.

Annepu (2018) stated that while some countries achieved considerable

success in solid waste management, the rest of the world is still grappling in

dealing with their waste. And in this places, improper management of solid

waste continues to impact the health of the community; polluting the water, air,

and land, climate change and accelerates the depletion of forests.

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In addition, the World Bank (2018) identified that the residents in

developing countries, especially the urban poor, are more severely impacted

by unsustainably managed waste, compared to those in developed nations.

Furthermore, in low and middle-income countries, wastes are often disposed

in unregulated dumps or openly burned. These practices create serious health,

safety, and environmental consequences. Poorly managed waste serve as a

breeding ground for disease vectors, contributing to global climate change

through methane generation, and even promotes urban violence.

According to the Tiger Sanitation of Utah (2015), proper waste

management is important because of the fact that it contributes to the

protection of the environment. Toxfree (2017) also agrees that the spread of

unmanaged waste and rubbish is a key detriment to the environment. Waste

that is not dealt with effectively, and left to rot in big piles in the open, can lead

to air and water pollution which is harmful to the environment and any living

organisms that have to deal with the repercussions of the pollution. Moreover,

when a natural area is the victim of widespread littering and rubbish dumping,

the area ceases to sustain its natural beauty. Toxfree (2017) added that, we

humans create far more waste than any other living organism on the planet,

and we are susceptible to its backlash if we don’t deal with it properly. And if

waste and rubbish that has not been properly disposed or recycled becomes
 23

too prominent, causing pollution, thus posing a great threat of bugs and virus

to people worldwide. Furthermore, waterborne diseases such as gastro and

cholera can form when an area of water is contaminated with waste, having an

effective waste management greatly reduces the risk of the spread of disease.

Solid Waste Management: An Overview

Solid waste is generated from industrial, residential and commercial

activities in a given area, and may be handled in a variety of ways. As such,

landfills are typically classified as sanitary, municipal, construction and

demolition or industrial waste sites. According to LeBlanc (2017), waste can

be categorized based on material, such as plastic, paper, glass, metal, and

organic waste. However, regardless of the origin, content or hazard potential,

solid waste must be managed systematically to ensure environmental best

practices. As solid waste management is a critical aspect of environmental

hygiene, it needs to be incorporated into environmental planning.

As of the present, the World Bank finances and advises on solid waste

management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including

traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and

technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects address

the entire lifecycle of waste—from generation to collection and transportation,

and finally treatment and disposal. Annepu (2018) added that, inclusive waste
 24

management where informal waste recyclers are involved can provide an

enormous economic opportunity to the marginalized urban poor. Additionally,

a good solid waste management plan with cost recovery mechanisms can free

tax payer’s money for other issues.

However, in the Philippines, the Republic Act 9003-Ecological Solid

Waste Management Act that provides the mandate for solid waste

management (SWM) implementation still observe poorly managed solid waste

systems. This is often reflected through the use of open landfills and dumpsites

although SWM alternatives are available. Socio economic and

physicochemical studies of waste disposal sites in the Philippines revealed a

poorly managed system due to lack of public awareness, less participation of

stakeholders, and minimal policy implementations. A need for public

awareness is seen necessary to help in mitigating the problem.

Methods in Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management practices can differ for residential and

industrial producers, for urban and rural areas, and for developed and

developing nations. The administration of non-hazardous waste in

metropolitan areas is the job of local government authorities. On the other

hand, the management of hazardous waste materials is typically the job of the

generator, subject to local, national and even international authorities.

 25

According to Montreal (2012), whichever the case, waste management

is usually the responsibility of the local government. Industries can also

manage their wastes, in case they are non-hazardous. The methods of waste

management involves: proper dumping, recycling, transportation and

collection, and the creation of awareness.

Dumping is the most common methods which includes landfill and

incineration. A landfill is a conventional dumping method, which involves

burying of wastes in a common pit. The landfill should be economical and far

from the residential areas. On the other hand, incineration is a dumping method

which involves combustion of the waste materials. The advantage of using

incineration method is that it can be conducted at individual scale level.

Recycling method is useful to waste materials that are organic in nature. The

waste materials are put in biological decomposition and later recycled to form

composts for agricultural purposes. However, there are complex products that

are not easy to recycle. Because of the complexity of recycling these products,

there exist processes such as biological reprocessing. Collection and

transportation of wastes vary from one place to another. Some places prefer

bin rental, which comes in different sizes. For the purpose of collection and

transportation of wastes, it is imperative that every residency is endowed with

three waste disposal bins. Management of waste is an area that requires

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proper awareness and education for global preservation. Creating awareness

is critical for the perseverance of the security of the humankind and global

health. Education on waste management involves the introduction of the

reverse vending machines to supermarkets and public institutions. The

advantage of employing these machines is that they are affordable and hence,

cut down cost on waste management.

Solid Waste: The Problem

For Desa et., al. (2011) solid waste is a cleanliness and hygiene issue.

The scenery of overloaded bins and uncollected in waste bins created just not

foul aroma but insightful too. Sometimes we can see litter at the roadside,

drains clogged up with rubbish and rivers filled with filthy garbage definitely

indicate that solid waste is a major environmental problem. Rapid

development, population increase and changes in consumption pattern directly

(and indirectly) resulted in the generation of enormous amount of waste,

ranging from biodegradable to synthetic waste.

Generally, according to Kathiravale & Mohd Yunus (2008) developed

countries generate more waste than developing countries. Countries in Asian

and African region produce waste in the range of 0.21-0.37 tons/ capita/ year,

while European countries generate higher amount of waste with 0.38-0.64

tons/ capita/ year (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2006).

 27

Environmental problems have attracted the attention all over the world.

People are becoming increasingly conscious of variety of problems like global

warming, air, water and land pollution. Most of the environmental problems

could be caused by manmade pollution which not only damage natural

resources, but also its effect is also dangerous. Zurbrugg (2003) stated that,

human activities create waste, and it is the way these waste are handled,

stored, collected and disposed of which can pose risks to the environment and

public health. Waste disposal is an immediate and critical issue for the

community now and ineffective or irresponsible disposal of solid waste pollutes

the environment and pose health risk to public. Waste management

technologies like land filling and incineration are not a complete solution to this

problem. No one wants a waste management site in his or her neighborhood.

According to Dhahya (2003), addressing the issue of municipal solid

waste management is an important policy objective because on the one hand,

while the awareness of the external effects of municipal solid waste is

increasing, on the other hand, municipal solid waste generation has grown

significantly beyond the management capacity of governments over the last

decades.

There are three major voids that arise in the management of solid waste.

First, when individuals decide on how much to consume and what to consume,
 28

they do not take into account how much waste they produce. Because the

external costs of waste generation such as air and water pollution are ignored

by individuals, more waste is produced and disposed of (Ferrara, 2003, Hong,

1999, Jenkins et. al., 2003). Secondly, according to Zurbrugg and Ahmed

(1999) and Linderholf (2001) in most cities in the world, individuals pay nothing

for waste disposal, therefore, waste disposal costs are not reflected in the

prices households pay for day to day activities and would thus tend to produce

more waste than if they were to pay for the additional waste generated

according to its social, health or environmental marginal cost. The third serious

problem is due to the association of poor waste management with negatives

including disease, lack of aesthetic, pollution of air, water and other

consequences.

These issues are fundamental to public participation and awareness in

municipal waste management in areas that face serious challenges in this

regard. This is due in part to the fact that public awareness and participation

requires that individuals and communities not only participate in the day to day

decisions about the type of waste management service but take responsibility

not only in decision making but in paying and giving some of their time to the

endeavor (Common wealth secretariat, 2004).

 29

Many municipalities in the Philippines have difficulties in complying with

the rules and regulations of RA 9003. National Solid Waste Management

Commission (NSWMC) Executive Director Zoilo Andin said that the high cost

needed by the local government for dump closure was one of the primary

reasons why many local governments could not comply with the statutory

deadline (Business World Publishing Corporation, 2006). Furthermore, some

mayors and local government officials said that the law did not provide financial

and technical assistance and that it sets unrealistic deadlines, according to the

Manila Standard/Financial Times Information Ltd. (2006).

The management of waste become complex and the facilities provided

cannot cope with the increasing demand and needs. Therefore, best approach

need to be implemented immediately while considering environmental, social

and economic aspects (Aye & Widjaya, 2006). The drivers of sustainable waste

management were clarified by Agamuthu et al. (2009), which include human,

economic, institutional and environment aspect. The study suggests that each

driving group should be considered in local context as managing solid waste

for a particular society may differ from the others (Couth & Trois, 2010). On the

other hand, problems faced among Asian countries differ with two distinct

groups; developed and developing countries. While some of the countries are

having specific national policy on solid waste management, some others

 30

experience problems such as increasing urban population, scarcity of land,

services coverage area, inadequate resources and technology, and so on

(Shekdar, 2009).

Managing waste properly is essential for building sustainable and livable

cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and

cities. Moreover, as the World Bank (2018) stated, effective waste

management is expensive, often comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets.

Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are

efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.

Insights Learned from the Related Literatures

From all the literature stated above, the researchers have learned that

the implementation of solid waste management is very important if we want the

beautiful things in this world to stay. And that an integrated Solid Waste

Management is a responsibility of each and every individual, as it benefits all

as a part of the society and the environment. Also, it is practically not possible

to do it without the communities’ participation, along with government and

corporates. We need to focus on a strategy for managing this issue by

developing industry wise models, as industries differ in the type of situation and

resources for the waste and its management.

 31

An Incorporated Solid Waste Management Plan must be in place and

implementation for developing and underdeveloped countries of the world,

SWM is a resource for development and growth if it’s taken seriously and

properly managed by every individuals, Local municipality and National

government policy and implementation. The MSW sustainable management in

developing countries is suffering from political lip service.

Related Studies

Solid Waste Management Survey

As an aspect in learning, Trondillo et., al (2018) conducted a study

assesses the solid waste management awareness, practices and attitude

among high school and K to 12 students, as well as measuring the

effectiveness of the existing solid waste management programs implemented

in their province. The study found that the local authorities’ commitment to

implementing the solid waste management program is still insufficient to

succeed in addressing the environmental issues and its related concerns,

since there are still a number of students that are unaware of the waste

management programs of if they have the knowledge, do not have the

willingness to comply. Most of the Grade 9 students were found well aware of

the programs conducted by local authority/school regarding waste

management than any other grade level, and believe that the administrators
 32

play an important role in implementing them. On the other hand, it was also

found that Grades 10 and 11 though mostly unaware with the program,

practices more the use of kitchen waste as compost and are more observant

with the garbage thrown at the roadside. As for the effectiveness on the

implemented program, the students rate the solid waste management program

as moderately effective on the average.

Public Awareness about Disposal of Solid Waste and Its Impact

An investigation was conducted by Sarker et., al. (2011) on public

awareness about the disposal of solid waste and its impact in Tangail. The

data is collected through questionnaire interview from the local residents, self-

observation and secondary sources. The investigation was conducted among

three major infected areas by selecting normal dustbin and open area during

August to September 2011. A total of 100 respondents were interviewed for

the study and found out that waste were dumped three times a day. Most of

the respondents claim for wrong site selection and improper maintenance

causing bad odor, health problems, aesthetic problems, etc. It was also found

that the main sources of waste materials generation were urban dwellers and

that the metropolis dumped most of the waste. Some locals were also involve

in dumping their waste in the area. After the interview respondents were asked

for suggestions regarding the areas solid waste management, and confidently
 33

bring into a large number of respondents that suggested that it is necessary to

improve the present system of solid waste management and change the place

to be used as a dumping site to another place where the effects of solid waste

will be negligible. These respondents also suggested that the management of

disposal facility should be increased to a satisfactory level and that awareness

must be developed among all classes of people so that the negative

consequences of wastes can be reduced at a large extent.

Knowledge, Attitude and Practices on SWM

Waste disposal is an immediate and critical issue for the community now

and ineffective or irresponsible disposal of solid waste pollutes the environment

and pose health risk to public. Waste management technologies like land filling

and incineration are not a complete solution to this problem. No one wants a

waste management site in his or her neighborhood.

According to Desa et., al (2011), it is a common knowledge that waste

is nothing but useful material at wrong place. There is no material in this world,

which is not useful in one-way or the other. Also there is no material, which is

created out of nothing. It is man’s ignorance that he considers certain things

as waste and certain other thing as useful. Just as types of wastes are

changing, so must the attitude of people towards waste must change. People

must realize that the solution lies in using waste as a resource rather than to
 34

be destroyed. Moreover, our earth suffers from many environmental problems

which need to be tackled at the individual level, requiring individuals to develop

those attitudes which will guide them to environmentally supportive behavior

(Ahmed & Mohammed Al-Mekhlafi, 2009). Formation and change of attitude

are interwoven. People are always adopting, modifying, and relinquishing

attitudes to fit the ever changing needs and interests. Attitude cannot be

changed by simple education. Acceptance of new attitude depends on who is

presenting the knowledge, how it is presented, how the person is perceived,

the credibility of the communicator, and the conditions by which the knowledge

was received. Research in social sciences has shown that knowledge on a

topic may increase; people may even change attitudes, but that the step to

improved behaviors and practices is depending on a complex set of social and

psychological factors.

A study conducted by Desa et., al. (2011) examines the knowledge,

attitudes, awareness status and behavior and practice concerning solid waste

management (SWM) among first year students. The study showed that the

respondents’ behavior and practice they engage in waste management is

because they value cleanliness and they want to mitigate the possible disease

occurrences. However, it is apparent that there is the necessity to develop

student’s attitudes and willingness to reduce problems related to SWM.

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Respondents recognized that attaining a sustainable waste management is a

joint responsibility of the government and its community members. The major

recommendations of the study are the needs to put more effort into raising

students’ awareness by awareness campaigns that can bring about

considerable changes in the attitude and perception of them towards SWM.

Another survey conducted by Barloa et., al. (2016) captures the

knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) on solid waste management on over

2, 528 undergraduate students enrolled in the second semester A.Y. 2015-16.

The survey found comparable average ratings on the students’ knowledge

(87.8%) and attitude (87.0%) on solid waste management program; while a

remarkably low average rating was obtained for those students who practice

(72.5%) waste management. The average general KAP rating was 82.5% and

was deemed unsatisfactory. This indicates that though many students are

aware of the program and was concern with the existing environmental issues,

only few students apply waste management in the school and in their

household.
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Sustainable Practices

Since the 21st century, proper management of a nation’s municipal solid

waste (MSW) has become and continues to be a high priority area for every

country’s government. Stemming from the current problems of disposing MSW,

a holistic concept of integrated solid waste management has become a

necessity in planning for the future. This includes source reduction of waste

before entering the waste stream, recovery of generated waste for recycling

and composting and environmentally sound disposal through combustion

facilities and sanitary landfills that comply with best management practices. A

historical perspective is particularly beneficial as it establishes trends and

highlights the changes, of types of waste generated and the ways they are

managed over the years. This perspective on MSW and its management is

valuable in assessing national solid waste management needs and policies,

and setting realistic national targets for recycling rates.

A study conducted by Abdullah et., al. (2017) shows that households’

knowledge and understanding of waste is reasonably good, namely in terms

of health consequences and how waste can be of benefit to the society and

environment. However, households are ignorant towards the frequency of

garbage collection. Knowing the right schedule is very important because it

helps the household to plan their disposing of rubbish in the bin. On the other
 37

hand, it was found that the respondents are putting the blame on the garbage

collectors; generally the household agree that not adhering to the collection

schedule and irregular rubbish collection are giving them problems. The

respondents also agree that that there is a lack of awareness, knowledge and

enforcement that causes disorderly waste disposal.

Mutungwe et.,al. (2014) supported the findings through the results of

their study when they found out that the respondents are well aware about the

dangers of improper waste management. They were aware of the need to have

proper waste management but were not aware of the four Rs of solid waste

management namely Recycle, Reuse, Reduce and Rethinking. Another study

conducted by Yadav and Devi (2016) on to why SWM receives low

sustainability when it comes to implementation shows that existing SWM

practices is not appropriate and is very unsatisfactory. And that there were

many shortcomings in the existing practices followed for the management of

MSW which relates mainly to inadequate manpower, financial resources, and

implements/ machinery required for effectively performing MSWM activities in

the town. Facilities for collection and disposal of SWs are inadequate leaving

a substantial proportion uncollected. Segregation and storage of SW generally

absent.
 38

However, a study by Paghasian (2017) on SWM practices among

college students found that the students are knowledgeable and mindful on

solid waste management and have an acceptable habit in segregating,

reducing and reusing waste materials while they fall short in recycling and

disposing garbage. The awareness on solid waste management of the

students does not affect their practices in terms of disposal however their

practices in terms of segregation, reduce, reuse and recycle influence their

awareness on solid waste management.

Recycling Attitudes

A benefit of recycling is that it avoids the use of other disposal methods

(e.g. landfill and incineration), which are common but perhaps not as

environmentally-friendly as recycling (Erwin and Healy, 1990). It is important

to recognize that because recycled material is often relatively low in value per

ton, the cost of actually transporting that material has to be kept at an absolute

minimum (Ashworth, 1992). Poorly sited facilities can create more nuisance

than the actual process is worth. People bringing their material to the recycling

center could end up wasting more energy in the process than would eventually

be recovered (ibid). There are also delivery costs associated with

transportation for the collected goods have to be taken to the market (Vogler,

1981).
 39

A number of macro-economic benefits can be derived from recycling.

Global resources of material are distributed unevenly between countries, so

that for many countries the recycling issue has received great attention as a

means of reducing dependence on foreign supply. The re-use of products

already in the production stream provides a domestic source of materials. This

reduces the need for a country to import costly raw materials from other

countries.

Consequently it can also be an incentive to export eg. in Sweden, an

important factor in the program to encourage waste paper recycling has been

the need to avoid a shortfall in the raw material for paper products, since this

is one of the country’s most important exports (Bidwell, 1976; Donato and

Ferrero, 1980). While recycling is generally considered beneficial to the

balance of trade position for countries, it must not be overlooked that recycling

may lead to a negative effect for a nation that exports raw material. As other

countries start recycling, the demand for virgin raw material is reduced and the

supplying country might experience losses eg. if all countries started recycling

paper, the demand of virgin material would be reduced. This could prove to be

unfavorable for countries like Sweden which export paper.

A study by Bao (2011) that investigates students‟ attitudes, behavior and

knowledge about waste and recycling by conducting a questionnaire survey

 40

sent by email to 5,598 students living in apartments. Her study found that a

great number of students would like to know more about the future fate of the

waste after they sort it. Therefore, providing information and knowledge on the

fate of recyclables following collection will help more students to understand

the importance of recycling, while increasing their motivation. On the other

hand, nearly half of the respondents did not know where to take hazardous

waste and/or large items, and one fifth were not sure how to separate waste.

This raises alarming questions about whether the waste from residents

housing areas is treated in an economically and environmentally friendly way

and whether hazardous waste are dumped into the landfill or incinerated.

Insights Learned from Related Studies

From the stated studies above the researchers have learned that

municipal solid waste management (MSWM) plays an integral part of urban

environmental management. As the villages grew into towns and cities, it has

been observed especially in developing countries to throw waste onto access

ways, vacant lots and into waterways where they interacted with the

excrements of communities. Today’s greedy human population utilizes more

material than required to meet their daily needs.

Proper collection and subsequent disposal of solid wastes with minimum

nuisance have assumed a great importance in community

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environmental sanitation programs. As what have been stated before an

improper disposal causes an adverse impact on all components of the

environment and human health. Furthermore, being aware of the current

situation is not enough to be a solution to the problem unless given an action.