Exponential & Logarithmic

Functions
 Exponential function
 In real variables, f (x) = ex has the properties
f ′( x ) = f ( x ) and f ( x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) f (x2 )
 For Euler’s formula,
e = cos y + i sin y,
iy
y a real number
 For z = x + iy, it is natural to expect that
e x +iy = e x eiy = e x (cos y + i sin y )
 The exponential fx of a complex variable z is
defined as e z = e x + iy = e x (cos y + i sin y ) (14 )
54
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
Ex. Evaluate e1.7+4.2i.
⇒ x = 1.7 and y = 4.2
⇒e 1.7 + 4.2 i
=e
1.7
(cos 4.2 + i sin 4.2) = −2.6837 − 4.7710i
 Re(ez) = u(x,y) = excos y & Im(ez) = v(x,y) = exsin y
are continuous & have continuous 1st partial
derivatives at every point z of the complex
plane. Moreover, (10) are satisfied at all points.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
⇒ = e cos y =
x
and = −e sin y = −
x

∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x 55
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 Thus, f (z) = ez is analytic for all z; in other
words, f is an entire function.
 The derivative of f can be obtained via (11).
∂u ∂v
f ′( z ) =
∂x
( )
+ i = e x cos y + i e x sin y = f ( z )
∂x
d z
∴ e = ez
dz
 If z1 = x1 + iy1 & z2 = x2 + iy2, we can have
f ( z1 ) f ( z 2 ) = e x1 (cos y1 + i sin y1 )e x2 (cos y2 + i sin y2 )
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
f (z1 ) f (z 2 ) = e x1 + x2 [(cos y1 cos y2 − sin y1 sin y2 )
+ i (sin y1 cos y2 + cos y1 sin y2 )]
= e x1 + x2 [cos( y1 + y2 ) + i sin ( y1 + y2 )]
= f ( z1 + z 2 )
z1 + z 2
∴e e = e
z1 z2

e z1 z1 − z 2
 Similarly, one can prove that z2 = e
e

57
 Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 Periodicity
 f (z) = ez is periodic with the complex period 2πi.
 e 2πi = cos 2π + i sin 2π = 1
z + 2πi z 2πi
⇒e = e e = e for all z
z

∴ f (z + 2πi ) = f (z )
 Divide the complex plane into
(2n − 1)π < y ≤ (2n + 1)π
where n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, 
f (z ) = f (z ± 2πi ) = f (z ± 4πi ) =  58
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 The strip −π < y ≤ π is called the fundamental
region for f (z) = ez.
 The flow over the fundamental region.

59
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 Polar form of a complex number
iθ
 Using (6), z = r(cosθ + i sinθ).  e = cos θ + i sin θ
iθ
∴ z = re
Ex. Find the steady-state current I(t) in an RLC
series circuit.
2
d q dq 1 dq
L 2 +R + q = E0 sin ωt and I =
dt dt C dt
dI 1
⇒ L + RI + q = Im E0 e jωt
dt C
( ) 60
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
Assume I(t) = Im(I0 e jωt).
 1 
⇒  jωL + R +  I 0 = E0
 j ωC 
E0 E0 E0
∴ I0 = = =
1  1  Z
j ωL + R + R + j  ωL − 
jωC  ωC 
2  1  
j tan −1   ωL −
jθ  1  ω
 R
where Z = Z e = R +  ωL −
2
 e   C  

 ωC 
 E 0 − j θ j ωt 
∴ I (t ) = Im e e  61

Z 
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 Logarithmic function
 Logarithm of a complex number z (z ≠ 0) is defined
as the inverse of the exponential function.
w = ln z if z = e w
 (15)
 To find the real & imaginary parts of ln z
z = x + iy = e w = e u +iv = eu (cos v + i sin v )
⇒ x = e u cos v and y = eu sin v
 x 2 + y 2 = e 2u ⇒ z 2 = e 2u ∴ u = log e z

⇒y
 x = tan v ⇔ v = θ = arg z 62
 Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 For z ≠ 0 and θ = arg(z)
ln z = log e z + i(θ + 2nπ ) for n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,   (16 )
 Note that there are infinitely many values of the
logarithm of a complex number z.
Ex. Evaluate (a) ln(−2) and (b) ln(−1 − i).
(a ) θ = arg(− 2) = π and log e − 2 = 0.6932
∴ ln (− 2 ) = 0.6932 + i(π + 2nπ )
(b ) θ = arg(− 1 − i ) = 5π 4 and log e − 1 − i = log e 2 = 0.3466
∴ ln (− 1 − i ) = 0.3466 + i (5π 4 + 2nπ ) 63
 Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 Principal value
 As a consequence of (16), the logarithm of a
positive real number has many values.
 With the principal argument of a complex number,
Arg(z), in the interval (−π, π], we can define the
principal value of ln z as
Ln z = log e z + i Arg z  (17 )
Ex. Evaluate (a) Ln(−2) & (b) Ln(−1 − i).
(a ) θ = Arg(− 2) = π ∴ Ln(− 2) = 0.6932 + πi
(b ) θ = Arg(− 1 − i ) = − 3π 4 ∴ Ln(− 1 − i ) = 0.3466 − i(3π 4)
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 (16) can be interpreted as an infinite
collection of logarithmic functions. Each fx in
the collection is called a branch of ln z.
 f (z) = Ln z is called the principal branch of
ln z or the principal logarithmic function.
 Some familiar properties hold in the complex
case: ln (z z ) = ln z + ln z
1 2 1 2
  
ln z1  = ln z − ln z
  z 2  1 2
 65
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
Ex. For z1 = i & z2 = −1 + i,
3π
Ln( z1 z 2 ) = Ln(− 1 − i ) = 0.3466 − i
4
 π  3π 
Lnz1 + Lnz 2 =  0 + i  +  0.3466 + i 
 2  4 
5π
= 0.3466 + i ≠ Ln( z1 z 2 )
4

66
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 Analyticity
 f (z) = Ln z is not continuous at z = 0 since f (0) is
not defined.
 f (z) = Ln z is discontinuous at all points of the
negative real axis because Im[f (z)] = v = Arg(z) is
discontinuous at these points.
 For x0 on the negative real axis, as z → x0 from the
upper half-plane, Arg(z) → π, whereas as z → x0
from the lower half-plane, Arg(z) → −π.
 Thus, f (z) = Ln z is NOT analytic on the
nonpositive real axis. 67
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 However, f (z) = Ln z is analytic throughout the
domain D consisting of all the points in the
complex plane except the nonpositive real axis.
 Since f (z) = Ln z is the principal branch of ln z, the
nonpositive real axis is referred to as a branch
cut for the function.
 (10) is satisfied throughout D.
 Also,
d 1
Lnz = for all z in D
dz z
68
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 The figure shows w = Ln z as a flow.

69
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 Complex powers
 Define complex powers of a complex number.
 If α is a complex number & z = x + iy,
z =eα α ln z
for z ≠ 0  (18)
 Since ln z is multiple-valued, zα is multiple-valued.
 However, when α = n (integer), (18) is single-
valued since there is only one value for z2, z3, z−1…
Ex. Suppose α = 2 & z = reiθ
2 (log e r + i (θ + 2 kπ )) 2 log e r 2 iθ
e 2 ln z
=e =e e e i 4 kπ = r 2 e iθ e iθ ⋅1
iθ iθ
= re ⋅ re = z 2 70
Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
 If we use Ln z in place of ln z, (18) gives the
principal values of zα.
Ex. Evaluate i2i.
z = i, arg z = π 2 , α = 2i
2 i [log e 1+ i (π 2 + 2 nπ )] − (1+ 4 n )π
⇒i =e2i
=e , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, 
i2i is real for every value of n.
Since Arg(z) = π/2, we obtain the principal value of
i2i for n = 0.
−π
⇒i =e 2i
≅ 0.043
71
 Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Trigonometric functions
 For a real variable x,
− ix
e = cos x + i sin x and e
ix
= cos x − i sin x
−ix −ix
e −e ix
e +e ix
⇒ sin x = and cos x =
2i 2
 Similarly, for a complex number z = x + iy,
− iz − iz
e −e
iz
e +e iz
sin z = and cos z =  (19 )
2i 2
sin z 1 1 1
tan z = , cot z = , sec z = , csc z =
cos z tan z cos z sin z
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Analyticity
 Since eiz & e−iz are entire functions, it follows that
sin z & cos z are entire functions.
 Note that sin z = 0 only for z = nπ & cos z = 0 only
for z = (2n + 1)π/2. Thus, tan z & sec z are analytic
except at z = (2n + 1)π/2, and cot z & csc z are
analytic except at z = nπ.

73
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Derivatives
 Since (d/dz)ez = ez, we have (d/dz)eiz = ieiz and
(d/dz)e−iz = −ie−iz.
d d e iz − e − iz eiz + e − iz
⇒ sin z = = = cos z
dz dz 2i 2
d d
sin z = cos z cos z = − sin z
dz dz
d d
tan z = sec z
2
cot z = − csc 2 z  (20 )
dz dz
d d
sec z = sec z tan z csc z = − csc z cot z 74

dz dz
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Identities
 Same in the complex case.
sin (− z ) = − sin z
cos(− z ) = cos z
cos 2 z + sin 2 z = 1
sin (z1 ± z 2 ) = sin z1 cos z 2 ± cos z1 sin z 2
cos(z1 ± z 2 ) = cos z1 cos z 2  sin z1 sin z 2
sin 2 z = 2 sin z cos z
cos 2 z = cos z − sin z
2 2 75
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 If y is real, the hyperbolic sine & cosine are
−y −y
e −e
y
e +e
y
sinh y = and cosh y =
2 2
 From (19) & Euler’s formula
i ( x + iy ) − i ( x + iy )
e −e
⇒ sin z =
2i
 e y + e− y   e y − e− y 
= sin x  + i cos x 
 2   2 
sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
∴  (21)
cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y
76
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 From (21),
1 = cosh 2 y − sinh 2 y  (22)
2
sin z = sin x ⋅ cosh y + cos x ⋅ sinh y
2 2 2 2

( )
= sin 2 x 1 + sinh 2 y + cos 2 x ⋅ sinh 2 y
= sin x + sinh y  (23)
2 2

cos z = cos 2 x + sinh 2 y  (24 )

77
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Zeros
 A complex number z is zero iff |z|2 = 0.
 To have sin z = 0, we must have sin2x + sinh2y = 0.
from (23). This implies that sin x = 0 & sinh y = 0,
and so x = nπ & y = 0.
 Zeros of sin z are z = x + iy = nπ, where n = 0, ±1,
±2, …
 Similarly, zeros of cos z are z = (2n + 1)π/2, where
n = 0, ±1, ±2, …

78
 Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
Ex. Evaluate sin(2 + i).
⇒ sin (2 + i ) = sin 2 cosh 1 + i cos 2 sinh 1 = 1.4031 − 0.4891i
Ex. Solve the equation cos z = 10.
eiz + e − iz
⇒ cos z = = 10
2
⇒ e − 20e + 1 = 0
2 iz iz

⇒ eiz = 10 ± 3 11
( )
⇒ iz = log e 10 ± 3 11 + 2nπi for n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, 
( )
∴ z = 2nπ  i log e 10 + 3 11 for n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, 
79
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Hyperbolic sine & cosine
 For any complex number z = x + iy,
e z − e− z e z + e− z
sinh z = and cosh z =  (25)
2 2
 Also, sinh z 1
tanh z = coth z =
cosh z tanh z  (26 )
1 1
sech z = csch z =
cosh z sinh z
80
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Hyperbolic sine & cosine are entire functions.
 Functions of (26) are analytic except at points
where the denominators are zero.
 From (25), it is easy to see that
d d
sinh z = cosh z and cosh z = sinh z  (27 )
dz dz
 Trigonometric & hyperbolic functions are related in
complex calculus.
sin z = −i sinh (iz ), cos z = cosh (iz )  (28)
sinh z = −i sin (iz ), cosh z = cos(iz )  (29 ) 81
Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Zeros
 Zeros of sinh z & cosh z are pure imaginary and are
respectively, πi
z = nπi and z = (2n + 1) for n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, 
 Also, note that
2
sinh z = −i sin (iz ) = −i sin (− y + ix )
= −i[sin (− y ) cosh x + i cos(− y )sinh x ]
= −i[− sin y cosh x + i cos y sinh x ]
∴ sinh z = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y  (30 )
Similarly, cosh z = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y  (31)
 Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
 Periodicity
 From (21),
sin ( z + 2π ) = sin ( x + 2π + iy )
= sin ( x + 2π ) cosh y + i cos( x + 2π )sinh y
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y = sin z
cos( z + 2π ) = cos z
 From (30) & (31),
sinh (z + 2πi ) = sinh (x + iy + 2πi )
= sinh x cos( y + 2π ) + i cosh x sin ( y + 2π ) = sinh z
cosh (z + 2πi ) = cosh z
83
Inverse Trigonometric &
Hyperbolic Functions
 Since the inverse of these analytic functions
are multiple-valued functions, they do NOT
possess inverse functions in its strictest
interpretation.
 Inverse sine
−1
 Def. w = sin z if z = sin w
e iw − e − iw
⇒ = z ⇒ e 2iw − 2ize iw − 1 = 0
2i
(
⇒ e = iz + 1 − z
iw
)
2 12 −1
[ (
∴ sin z = −i ln iz + 1 − z )
2 12
]
Inverse Trigonometric &
Hyperbolic Functions
 Inverse cosine
− iw
e +e
iw
= z ⇒ e 2iw − 2 ze iw + 1 = 0
2
(
⇒ e = z + z −1
iw 2
)
12 −1
[ (
∴ cos z = −i ln z + i 1 − z )
2 12
]
 Inverse tangent
eiw − e − iw
⇒ iw −iw = z ⇒ e 2iw − 1 = iz (e 2iw + 1)
i (e + e )
1 + iz −1 −i i − z i i + z
⇒e =2 iw
∴ tan z = ln = ln
1 − iz 2 i+z 2 i−z 85
 Inverse Trigonometric &
Hyperbolic Functions
−1
Ex. Find all values of sin 5

( ) 
12
sin −1  2

5 = −i ln  5i + 1 − 5  
   
= −i ln[ 5i ± 2i ] = −i ln[( 5 ± 2 )i ]

= −i log ( 5 ± 2 ) +  + 2nπ i ,
 π 
e n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, 
 2  

=
π
2
+ 2nπ  i log e ( 5+2 )
86
 Inverse Trigonometric &
Hyperbolic Functions
 Derivatives
 To find the derivative of w = sin−1z, we begin by
differentiating z = sin w:
d d dw 1 1 1
z = sin w ⇒ = = =
dz dz dz cos w 1 − sin 2 w(1 2
)
1− z2 ( ) 12

d −1 1
∴ sin z =
dz 1− z (
2 12
)
d −1 −1 d −1 1
cos z = and tan z =
dz 1− z (
2 1 2
) dz 1 + z 2
87
Inverse Trigonometric &
Hyperbolic Functions
Ex. Find the derivative of w = sin−1z at z = 5
dw 1 1 1 i
⇒ = = = =
dz z = 5 
( )2
1 − 5  
1 2
(− 4 )1 2
± 2i 2
 

88
Inverse Trigonometric &
Hyperbolic Functions
 Inverse hyperbolic functions & derivatives
−1
[ (
sinh z = ln z + z + 1 2
)
12
] d
dz
−1
sinh z =
(z +1
2
1
)12

z = ln[z + (z − 1) ]
−1 12 d −1 1
cosh 2
cosh z =
dz (z −1
2
)12

1 1+ z
−1 d −1 1
tanh z = ln tanh z =
2 1− z dz 1− z2
Ex. Find all values of cosh−1(−1)
cosh (− 1) = ln (− 1) = log e 1 + (π + 2nπ )i
−1

= (2n + 1)πi, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,  89