ATMECE, MYSORE REMOTE SENSING & GIS (18th Scheme) 2020-21

MODULE-2

INDIAN SATELLITES
Indian Satellite began to develop indigenous Indian RS satellite programs to support the national
economy in the field of agriculture, water resource, watershed, forestry, ecology, geology & coastal
management etc. The IRS system is the largest constellation of RS satellite for civilian which is in
operation till today. With almost 15-17 satellites which are placed in Polar sun synchronize orbit.

1. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)-1B: This is the first navigation system for
the users which has been developed by India. The launch date is 4th April 2014.
Applications
i. Information about timings, disaster, vehicle traffic and flights.
ii. Navigation for hikers, travelers & marines.
iii. Smart phone integrated maps along with audio & video for the drivers.

2. MANGALYAN (Mars Orbitor): it was launched on 5th Nov 2013.

Applications: Observation of mars terrain, seeking the availability of water & life providing
information about the atmosphere.

3. INSAT: ISRO has allotted nearly seven Ku band transponders to Sun Direct, a DTH service
provider from South India, and the other five to Doordarshan’s DD Direct Plus. 12 transponders in
the C band are for TV, radio and telecommunication purposes. Ku stands for Kurz Unten- German

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for the band just underneath the short of K-band which starts at 20 GHz. It is one of the major
technologies used today for high-speed satellite internet and to broadcast satellite television direct
line to houses.

4. SARAL (Joint Venture with India & France): Satellite launched on 25th Feb 2013.
Applications:
i. Detailed information about ocean studies performing altimetric activities for the water circular in the
ocean.
ii. To measure the activities regarding the ocean and sea surface elevations.

5. RISAT-1 (Radar Imaging Satellite): It is one of the Radar satellite launched on 26th April 2014.
Applications:
i. To improve images of the earth surface.
ii. To improve the working of RS under all weather conditions.

6. GSAT: GSAT-3 or EDUSAT is a communication satellite which was launched on 20th sept 2004 by
ISRO. EDUSAT is the first Indian Satellite built exclusively to serve the educational sector such as
interactive satellite-based distance education system for the country.

7. SRM SAT: This serves for Govt. purposes to know about global warming. Nano satellite launched
on 12th Oct 2011. Pollution monitoring and its level of CO2 and water vapor, absorption of spectrum
ranges.
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8. MEGHATROPIQUES: An Indo-French joint venture satellite launched on 12th Oct 2011. It is a

satellite mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change
and tropical weather systems.
Applications: To study the phenomenon of two nations, water & energy supplied of tropical regions,
deep study of properties which affects tropical weather.

9. OCEAN SAT-1: An Ocean monitor satellite launched on 23rd Sept 2009.This will help to know
more about oceans, their wealth and coastal ecosystems. This satellite has two main sensors, namely
Ocean Color Monitor (OCM) and Multi Frequency Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR). The
potential scientific investigations such as ocean primary productivity, fish stock assessment,
sediments estimation, optical property of water, regional and global climate and environmental
changes, bio-geochemical cycle and others.

10. CARTOSAT-1: The satellite launched on 5th May 2015 and the data was provided by the satellite
since 8th of May 2005. It orbits 14 times per day with two PAN (Panchromatic) sensors. The
imageries have a spatial resolution of 2.5 mts and cover a swath of 30 km with an orbital height of
618 km. This sensor weighs 1560 kg at launch.
Applications: Urban management, Mineral management & Disaster management. To design & develop
stereo images.

11. CARTOSAT-2: Planned to launch on 23rd June 2017 with 30 co-passenger satellites at Sri Harikota.

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The swath covered is 9.6 km and their spatial resolution is less than 1 mts. Weighing around 680 kg
at launch its application is towards cartography in India. Currently, India buys images worth about
Rs. 2 crore a year from Ikonos with 80cm spatial resolution. Cartosat-2 can produce images upto
80cm in resolution and buying images from Ikonos is likely to decline in future.

12. IRS Series: The principal aim is for survey and management of agriculture, geology, forest and
hydrology and other natural resources. IRS series of satellites are IRS-1A, IRS-1B, IRS-1C, IRS-1D
and IRS-P4 apart from other satellites which were launched by Govt. of India. The IRS-1A to IRS-
1D are mainly focused on land surface; whereas IRS-P4 is an oceanographic satellite. First series in
Remote Sensing. It is the polar sun synchronous which was launched at Vastok in USSR, launched
on 17th March 1988. Orbital period 103 minutes. Inclination angle of the Satellite is 990. The
sensors used LISS-I & LISS-II linear images & scanners that detects solid materials. The spatial
resolution of LISS-I is 72.5 mts, LISS-II is 36.25 mts, LISS-III is 23.5 mts, whereas LISS-IV is 5.8
mts.

13. CHANDRAYAAN-1: It was the India’s first unmanned lunar probe launched by ISRO in Oct 2008
and operated until Aug 2009. The mission was a major boost to India’s space program, as India
researched and developed its own technology in order to explore the Moon and making India the
fourth country to place its flag on the Moon. The estimated cost for the project was 3.86 billion
Indian rupees. This satellite had a mass of 1,380 kg at launch and 675 kg in lunar orbit. Over a 2 year
period, it was intended to complete map of its chemical characteristics, 3D topography and presence
of lunar water ice.
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SENSORS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Range: Every sensor has a range in which they work with an acceptable error. It has the maximum
and minimum value over which the sensor will work if the input is not in range then the output is
unpredictable.
2. Drift: The signal level varies for the same input over a long period. This is the low frequency changed
in the sensor with time. It is often associated with electronic aging of components (or) a reference
standard sensor.
3. Sensitivity (additional): It is defined as the ratio of the incremental change in the sensor output to the
incremental change in the measured input.
4. Selectivity: It’s a system’s ability to measure a target in the presence of others interference.
5. Resolution: It’s a minimal change of measure and that can produce a detectable (clear images)
increment in the output.
6. Response and recovery time: The response time is the time taken by the sensors for its output to
reach 95% of its final value. The recovery time is defined as the time taken by the sensor for its
recovery to reach the final value.
7. Linearity: If the sensitivity of the sensor is constant for the range then it is called as linearity. Linear
sensors are easier to use while the nonlinear sensors require complex mathematical calculations.
8. Hysteresis: It’s a characteristic of a sensor by which the sensor produces a different set of output that
the data is recorded in different directions.
9. Calibration: If a meaningful measurement is to be made it is necessary to tune the output of a sensor
with accurately known input.
10. Full scale output: It’s a difference between the output for maximum input and the output for

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minimum input.
11. Precision: precision of a sensor is its ability to produce same output when repeatedly measured of a
same input.
12. Accuracy: It defines how close the output is to the real value. It also defines the maximum error the
sensor may produce.

REMOTE SENSING PLATFORMS

A platform is a vehicle or carrier for remote sensing instruments are mounted. These are mainly
attributed for object of interest, periodicity of image acquisition, timing of image acquisition, location
and extent of coverage. There are three broad categories of remote sensing platforms.
a. Ground based: A wide variety of ground-based platforms are used in remote sensing. Some of the
common ones are hand devices, tripods, towers and cranes. To study properties of a single plant or a
small patch of grass, it would make sense to use a ground based instrument. Towers can be built on
site and can be tall enough to project through a forest canopy for the range of forest health/ thickness
measurements. Even this will be helpful in mapping the different width of the roads.
b. Airborne: Air borne platforms were sole non-ground-based platforms for early remote sensing. The
first aerial images were acquired with a camera carried aloft by a balloon in 1859. Balloons are
rarely used today because they are always not predictable. At present air planes are the most
common airborne platforms. Most suitable technique for military purpose and to reduce crime.
Helicopters are usually used for low altitude applications, but quite expensive to operate. They are
limited to flying at lower elevations and at slow speeds with less area coverage. Another class of

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aircraft that has been in use for many years is remote control aircraft or drones, where it may be too
hazardous to fly.
c. Space-borne: The most stable platform aloft is a satellite. The first remote sensing satellite was
launched in 1960 for meteorology purposes (weather forecasting). Satellites can be classified by
their orbital geometry and timing. Three orbits commonly used for remote sensing satellites are
geostationary, equatorial and sun synchronous. For most remote sensing satellites revisits same
location once in every 16 days. In addition to sensor systems, there are often devices for recording,
preprocessing and transmitting the data.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RS PLATFORMS

Platforms Advantages Disadvantages
Ground • Can be used to identify the • Collect the reflectance characteristics from
based or reflectance characteristics of an a single point, not creating image
hand
held
camera

UAV
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individual leaf, plant or area.
• Flexible availability
• Useful for real-time spraying
applications
• Flexible availability • Relatively unstable platform can create
• Relatively low cost blurred images
• Very high spatial resolution • Geographic distortion
• Changeable sensors • May require certification to operate
• May be limited in height above ground
• Processing the data into field images may
be prone to error
Aircraft • Relatively flexible availability • High cost
• Relatively high spatial resolution • Availability depends on weather conditions
• Changeable sensors
Satellite • Some free images • High cost for high spatial resolution images
• Clear and stable images • Clouds may hide ground features
• Large area with each image • Fixed schedule
• Good historical data • Data may not be collected at critical times
• May need to sort through many images to
obtain useful information

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DATA FORMATS
In order to properly process the remote sensing data the analyst must know how the data is
organized, stored on the digital tapes (storage devices) and how data is processed to computer softwares.
There are 4 major data formats
1. Banded Interleaved by Pixel (BIP): One of the earliest data format used for the satellite data. This
format treats pixel as the separate value. Brightness value of each pixel is sorted after the other.
2. Banded Interleaved by Line (BIL): Just as banded interleaved by pixel format each pixel of data
has a separate unit. The banded interleaved by line format is sorted by lines. Shows the logic of how
the data is recorded in the computer tape in sequential values of four bands.
3. Banded Sequential Format (BSQ): The banded sequential format requires that all data from single
band covering the entire scene will be written as one file. Thus, if the analyst wanted to extract the
area in the centre of the scene in four bands it would be necessary to read it into this location in four
separate folders and to extract the desired information, many researchers like this format because it
is not necessary to be serially posted unwanted information or run length.
4. Band Length and Encoding Format (BLE): It’s based on sequential format which keep tracking
both the brightness value and number of times brightness value occur along the scale line. However,
the data is exceptionally heterogeneous with very few similar brightness values, this format is no
better than others.

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PLATFORMS
1. IRS Series:
IRS: IRS-1B; IRS-P2; IRS-P4; IRS-1C; IRS-P6; IRS-1A; IRS-1D.
IRS-1A: IRS is the first series in remote sensing. Launched on 17th march 1988.
IRS 1B: Launched on 29thaug 1991; Payloads LISS_1, LISS 2B.
IRS-P2: Launched on 15th October 1994; Payloads are LISS 2A and LISS 2B
IRS-P4: Launch 26.05.1999, payloads OCM, MSMR
IRS_P6: Launch 17thoct 2003, PSLV-C5.
IRS-1C and 1D: On both tape recorders with capacity of 6240 enhanced, payloads like better special
resolution with additional spectral bands.

2. Landsat: [earth resource transformation satellite]: Jointly managed by NASA and US geological
society [USGS]. Land sat programme is the longest running enterprise for acquisition of satellite
imageries of earth on July 23rd 1972. There was eventually renamed to Land sat for ERTS.
LANDSAT 8 was the most recent satellite launched on 11thfeb 2013. LANDSAT 9 is in
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development with the launch date laid 2020. The instruments abroad LANDAT satellites had
acquired billions of images through the course of the machine. The data are valuable resource for
global change research and application in agriculture, forestry, geology, regional planning and
education. LANDSAT data can be downloaded to all users at no charge. Common sensors used in
LANDSAT are MSS (Multispectral Scanner), Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), TM (Thematic
Mapper), OLI (Operational Land Image), Thermal infrared Sensor (TIR).

3. SPOT (Satellite Pour Observation Terre). It was set up in 1978 by France in partnership with
Belgium and Sweden. The spot satellite offers acquisition and revisit to acquire image from anywhere
in the world. The spot satellite payloads comprise of two identical high-resolution optical imaging
instrument which can operate simultaneously on individual in either PAN or MSS. SPOT-1:It was
launched by Air Bus on 30thjune 2014.

4. CARTOSAT: It’s an Indian based satellite which started its machine in 2006. The most resent
platform. CARTOSAT-2 is launched on 23rdjune 2017 with 30 co satellite at Sathis Dhawan Space
Centre at Sri Harikota. It orbits 14 times per day and carries two pan sensors
Applications: urban management, mineral exploration, disaster management etc.

5. IKONOS: It is a commercial earth observation satellite with high resolution sensor. On September
24th 1999 at Vander burg air force base California, U.S. The first IKONOS was launched and is
operated by a company called digital globe. Its application includes both urban and rural mapping of
natural resources and disaster management, Agriculture, Forestry, mining and construction IKONOS

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has a primary aperture of 0.7m and a folded optical local length of 10m. The detectors act with mass
of about 171 kg.

6. ENVISAT: It is a large inactive earth observing satellite which is still in orbit. It is operated by
European space agency. ENVISAT was launched on 1st march 2002 and ended its transmission in
8th April 2012 following the unexpected loss of contact with satellite. It carries a payload consisting
of 10 instruments of advanced design and provides smooth transaction. ENVISAT performed
optical, RADAR and spectroscopic measurements of the land, atmosphere and ice ensuring data
from ERS-1(European research satellite) and ERS-11. It weighs about 8211 kgs.

SENSORS
There are several broad categories of basic sensor system. Types such as
1. Passive: The sensor acquires the data using natural sunlight sources ranging less than 1 mm.
E.g., film photography, infrared, charge coupled devices, and radiometers.
2. Active sensor: The Sensor provides its own energy source of illumination to record earth surface
features. Its wavelength ranging from 0.4 to 10m.
E.g., RADAR and LASER.
3. Imaging versus Non-imaging (Scanning sensors): Data from imaging sensors can be processed to
produce an image of an area within which smaller parts of the sensors. Whole view are resolved
visually. Non imaging sensors usually are hand held devices that register only a single response
value with no fine resolution Imaging and non-imaging data provides an opportunity to look at

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spatial relationships, objects shapes and to estimates physical size based on the data spatial
resolution and sampling.

SENSORS RESOLUTION
The resolution of remote sensed raster data can be characterized in several different ways. There
are four primary types of "resolution" such as Spatial, Spectral, Radiometric and Temporal. It is
nearly impossible to acquire imagery that has high spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolution.
This is known as Resolution Trade-off, as it is difficult and expensive to obtain imagery with extremely
high resolution. Therefore it is necessary to identify which types of resolution are most important for a
project.

1. Spatial Resolution: Spatial resolution is the type of resolution most people are familiar with. An
image with 30 mts spatial resolution of a single pixel represents 30 x 30 mts. It is determined by sensor
characteristics for digital imagery and film characteristics including field of view, altitude for film
photography. The higher the resolution of the image, the more expensive it is to capture, process, and
distribute. This means that a satellite that acquires daily images generally has a more coarse (larger)
spatial resolution.

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2. Spectral Resolution: This refers to
how many spectral “bands” a sensor can
record. Indian Remote Sensing satellite
i.e., LISS-4 has 4 spectral bands; whereas
Landsat-5 has 7 bands with Black and
white photos contain only 1 band that
covers the visible region. Finer spectral
resolution represents narrower wavelength
range for specific use. This helps to reveal
mineral content of rocks, the moisture of
soil, vegetation health and others.
Panchromatic (Black & White) imagery
consists of 1 band; RGB color image will have 3 bands; Multispectral has 4-6 (RGBN); Super spectral
has 16 or more bands; hyperspectral has hundreds of bands and ultraspectral has more than 1000 bands
recorded by the respective sensors.

3. Radiometric resolution: Radiometric resolution is how finely a satellite or sensor divides up the
radiance it receives in each band. The greater the radiometric resolution the greater the range of
intensities of radiation the sensor is able to distinguish and record. Radiometric resolution is typically
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expressed as the number of bits

for each band. Traditionally 8-bit
data was common in remote
sensed data, newer sensors (like
Landsat 8) have 16-bit data
products. 8 bits = 28 = 256 levels
(usually 0 to 255) 16 bits = 216 =
65,536 levels (0 to 65,535).

4. Temporal resolution: Remote sensed data represents a snap shot in time. Temporal resolution is the
time between two subsequent data acquisitions for an area. This is also known as the “return time” or
"revisit time". The temporal resolution depends primarily on the platform, for example, satellites usually
have set return times and while sensors mounted on aircraft or unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), have
variable return times. For satellites, the return time depends on the orbital characteristics (low vs high
orbit), the swath width and whether or not there is an ability to point the sensor. Landsat has a return
time of approximately 16 days, while other sensors like MODIS have nearly daily return time.

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BASICS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
➢ A digital image is a representation of two-dimensional image of finite set of digital values (or)
pixels.
➢ Pixel value typically represent grey levels, colours, heights and opacity.
➢ Digitization implies that a digital image is an approximation of a real scene
➢ Digital image processing focuses on two major tasks.

1. Improvement of pictorial Information for human interpretation.

2. Processing of image data for storage transmission, and representation for autonomous machine
perception.

The use of digital image processing techniques

✓ It has exploded and they are used for all kinds of tasks
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✓ Image enhancement
✓ Medical visualization
✓ Law enforcement
✓ Industrial inspection
✓ Human computer interface

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING (DIP)

It is largely concerned with following basic operations.
1) Image Rectification and Restoration: This process is also termed as preprocessing analysis in
extracting specific information. This operation aims to correct distorted or degraded image data to
make it more meaningful representation of the original scene. TWO sub areas are involved in
restoration process are
a) Radiometric Restoration: This refers to the removal of degree of electromagnetic energy
registered by each sensor.
b) Geometric Restoration: This includes the correction for geometric distortions due to earth
geometry variation.
2) Image enhancement: It is concerned with the modification of image to make them more suitable for
human eye. Image enhancement involves techniques for increasing the visual distinctions between
features in a scene. This includes removing the noise and enhancement of contrast.
3) Image classification: These procedures fall into the domain of spatial pattern recognition. This
refers to the computer assisted interpretation of an image. Based on the appearance of an object of
features, the analyst assign’s a class or group. The intent of the classification process is to categorize

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all pixels into one of several land cover classes or themes (thematic maps). Supervised, unsupervised
and hybrid classification are normally used analysis. This helps in determining the land surface
features of each pixel in an image. E.g., Agriculture, forest, waterbodies.
4) Data merging and GIS integration: These procedures are used to combine image data for a given
geographic area with other data sets for the same area. This data is simply consists of image of same
area captured on other dates or by other sensors. This helps in multitemporal data merging, change
detection procedures, and multisensor image merging incorporating in GIS environment.
5) Hyperspectral image analysis: Study of spectral signatures will be more significant in mapping of
economic mineral deposits such as iron, manganese, bauxite etc. This not only identifies the
minerals and rocks, but also useful in diagnizing mineral composition and characterization.
6) Biophysical modelling: The data might be used to estimate the parameters of crop yield, pollution
concentration and water depth. This also help in the environmental modeling process.
7) Image transformation: It is an operation on image which converts images from one representation
to another.
8) Image transmission and compression: Since the data is available in high volume of data, it needs
to be compressed which is one of the image processing technique.

INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL DATA

Images with a continuous grey tone like a photograph are called analog images. A group of
divided small cells with integer values of average intensity, the center representing the cell value is
digital image. Remote sensing data are the data digitized by a process of sampling and quantization with

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electromagnetic energy which is detected by the sensors. The data that is acquired by the sensor has
errors, the correction in the images are classified into radiometric corrections and geometric corrections.
i. Radiometric corrections: These are removal of sensors or atmospheric noise, more accurately
represent ground conditions.
ii. Geometric corrections: conversion of data to ground coordinates by removal of distortion from
sensor geometry. It enables mapping relative to data layers. It also enables mosaicing (merging two
images each other) or comparison. There are methods of geometric corrections which includes
systematic errors and nonsystematic errors.

1. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: When the geometric reference data or geometric sensor are given or
measured geometric distortion can be theoretically or systematically avoided. The source of
systematic errors in RS are explained.
a. Scan skew: caused when ground swath is not normal and is skew due to forward motion of the
platform during the time of scan.
b. Mirror scan velocity: caused when the ray of scanning is not constant resulting along scan
geometric distortion.
c. Panoramic distortion: caused when the intensity of the source is greater or lesser resulting in
along scan image distortion.
d. Platform velocity: caused due to change in speed of the platform in along track scale distortion
e. Earth rotation: caused due to the rotation of earth during scan period resulting in along scan
distortion.

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2. NON-SYSTEMATIC ERROR: Polynomials to transform from a geographic co-ordinate system to
image system or vice versa will be determined by ground controlled points Non-systematic errors are
classified as below: Attitude and altitude
a. Attitude: Errors due to attitude variation can be attributed to roll, pitch and yaw (shapes) of the
satellite. Some of these errors can be corrected having knowledge about platform, ground
controlled points, sensors characters, space craft velocity.
b. Altitude: caused due to the departure of sensors, altitude resulting in change of scale.

IMAGE ENHANCEMENT
It is a technique that has been widely used in many applications of image processing where the
subjective quality of image is an important tractor in calculating an image. The goal of image
enhancement is to improve the usefulness of an image for the assigned task. The reasons for doing this
includes
1. Highlighting, intersecting details in images.
2. Removing noises from images.
3. Making images more visually appealing.
4. The techniques can be categorized as contrast manipulation, special manipulation and multi-image
manipulation.

CONTRAST MANIPULATION
One of the most common defects of a photographic or electronic image. Poor contrast resulting from
either poor lighting conditions or small dynamic range. This is further followed by three techniques.
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1. Gray level Thresholding: It’s a simple look up table which partitions the grey level in an image into
one or two categories. Those below the users selected threshold and those above the selected threshold.
Thresholding is the one of the many methods for creating the binary mass for an image. This procedure
is used to segment an image into two classes. One for those pixels having values below an analyst and
one for above those values.
2. Level slicing: It is an enhancement technique where by the digital numbers (DN) distributed along
the x-axis of an image. Histograms is divided into a series with specified intervals of slices. All of DN’s
falling with a given interval is input image which are then displayed at a single DN in output image.
3. Contrast stretching: Most satellites and air borne sensors were designed to accommodate a wide
range of illumination conditions form poorly lit artic regions to high reflectance desert region. Because
of the pixel values the majority of digital scenes occupy a relatively small portion of the possible range.
If the pixel values are displayed in their original form only a small range of grey values are displayed
and will be used, resulting in low contrast display on which similar features might be undistinguishable.

IMAGE FILTERING
It is a technique for modifying or enhancing an image. Image processing operations is
implemented with filtering includes smoothening, sharpening and edge enhancement Filtering is
neighborhood operation in which the values of any given pixel in the output image is determined by
applying some algorithm to the values of the pixels, in the neighborhood.
E.g., you can filter an image to emphasize certain features or remove other features.

1. High pass filters: it enhances difference between values of neighboring pixels, these changes in

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values are represented by edges and lines.
2. Edge: the border between two types of surfaces (forest and field).
3. Lines: rivers, streets, roads which are enhanced by high pass filters which are similar than half of
filter windows. These filters are used foe sharpening images, edges and lines.
4. Low pass filters: the rate of smoothening depends on the size of filters window, we can use these
filters to de-noise post class correction.

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