doi:10.

1093/fampra/cmn003 Family Practice Advance Access published on 27 February 2008

First steps in qualitative data analysis: transcribing

Julia Bailey

Bailey J. First steps in qualitative data analysis: transcribing. Family Practice 2008; 25: 127–131.
Qualitative research in primary care deepens understanding of phenomena such as health, ill-

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ness and health care encounters. Many qualitative studies collect audio or video data (e.g. re-
cordings of interviews, focus groups or talk in consultation), and these are usually transcribed
into written form for closer study. Transcribing appears to be a straightforward technical task,
but in fact involves judgements about what level of detail to choose (e.g. omitting non-verbal di-
mensions of interaction), data interpretation (e.g. distinguishing ‘I don’t, no’ from ‘I don’t know’)
and data representation (e.g. representing the verbalization ‘hwarryuhh’ as ‘How are you?’).
Representation of audible and visual data into written form is an interpretive process which is
therefore the first step in analysing data. Different levels of detail and different representations
of data will be required for projects with differing aims and methodological approaches. This ar-
ticle is a guide to practical and theoretical considerations for researchers new to qualitative data
analysis. Data examples are given to illustrate decisions to be made when transcribing or assign-
ing the task to others.
Keywords. Audio recording, data transcription, data analysis, qualitative research, video recording.

Introduction What are the aims of the research project?

Qualitative research can explore the complexity and Researchers’ methodological assumptions and disci-
meaning of social phenomena,1,2 for example patients’ plinary backgrounds influence what are considered rel-
experiences of illness3 and the meanings of apparently evant data and how data should be analysed. To take
irrational behaviour such as unsafe sex.4 Data for an example, talk between hospital consultants and
qualitative study may comprise written texts (e.g. medical students could be studied in many different
documents or field notes) and/or audible and visual ways: the transcript of a teaching session could be ana-
data (e.g. recordings of interviews, focus groups or lysed thematically, coding the content (topics) of talk.
consultations). Recordings are transcribed into written Analysis could also look at the way that developing
form so that they can be studied in detail, linked with an identity as a doctor involves learning to use lan-
analytic notes and/or coded.5 guage in particular ways, for example, using medical
Word limits in medical journals mean that little de- terminology in genres such as the ‘case history’.9 The
tail is usually given about how transcribing is actually same data could be analysed to explore the construc-
done. Authors’ descriptions in papers convey the im- tion of ‘truth’ in medicine: for example, a doctor say-
pression that transcribing is a straightforward technical ing ‘the patient’s blood pressure is 120/80’ frames this
task, summed up using terms such as ‘verbatim tran- statement as an objective, quantifiable, scientific truth.
scription’.6 However, representing audible talk as writ- In contrast, formulating a patient’s medical history
ten words requires reduction, interpretation and with statements such as ‘she reports a pain in the left
representation to make the written text readable and leg’ or ‘she denies alcohol use’ frames the patient’s ac-
meaningful.7,8 This article unpicks some of the theo- count as less trustworthy than the doctor’s observa-
retical and practical decisions involved in transcribing, tions.10 The aims of a project and methodological
for researchers new to qualitative data analysis. assumptions have implications for the form and

Received 5 June 2007; Revised 2 November 2007; Accepted 8 January 2008.

Level 2, Holborn Union Building, Highgate Hill, London N19 3UA, UK. Email: [email protected]

Ó 2008 The Authors

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/uk/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

127
128 Family Practice—an international journal

content of transcripts since different features of data In the second representation of this interaction, both
will be of analytic interest.7 speakers pause frequently. The doctor slaps his thigh
and uses the idiom ‘you’ll be fine’ to wrap up his ad-
vice giving. In response, Patient K is hesitant and he
What level of detail is required? uses the mitigation ‘well’, shrugs his shoulders and
Making recordings involves reducing the original data, laughs, suggesting turbulence or difficulty in in-
for example, selecting particular periods of time and/ teraction.15 Although the patient’s words seem to in-
or particular camera angles. Selecting which data have dicate agreement, the way these words are said
significance reflects underlying assumptions about seem to indicate the opposite.16

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what count as data for a particular project, for exam-
ple, whether social talk at the beginning and end of Example 2
an interview is to be included or the content of a tele- In another example, the addition of non-verbal fea-
phone call which interrupts a consultation. tures again gives a deeper understanding of the doc-
tor–patient interaction. This patient has consulted on
Visual data a Saturday morning with sore throat symptoms. In the
Verbal and non-verbal interaction together shape com- extract below, the doctor seeks clarification about Pa-
municative meaning.11 The aims of the project should tient F’s symptoms:
dictate whether visual information is necessary for Dr 5: So let’s just go back to this. So, so you’ve
data interpretation, for example, room layout, body had this for a few weeks
orientation, facial expression, gesture and the use of
equipment in consultation.12 However, visual data are Pt F: yes
more difficult to process since they take a huge length
of time to transcribe, and there are fewer conventions Adding in non-verbal features conveys that this is
for how to represent visual elements on a transcript.5 a potentially problematic exchange:
Dr 5: .hhh so let’s just go back to this (.) so (..) so
Capturing how things are said
you’ve had this for a few weeks
The meanings of utterances are profoundly shaped by
the way in which something is said in addition to what Pt F: yes (1.0) (left hand on throat, stroking with
is said.13,14 Transcriptions need to be very detailed to fingers)
capture features of talk such as emphasis, speed, tone
of voice, timing and pauses but these elements can be The doctor starts with a prominent in-breath and
crucial for interpreting data.7 stresses the word ‘weeks’ in her recapping of the dura-
tion of symptoms. Patient F responds, but there is then
Example 1 a prominent pause during which he strokes his throat
The following example shows how the addition of with his fingers (the site of his sore throat). The 1-second
pauses, laughter and body conduct to a transcript invites pause is ‘accountable’, in other words something is ex-
a different interpretation of an exchange between doctor pected in this space.17 Patient F does not expand on
and patient. The excerpt below is taken from near the his answer, but his gesture visibly demonstrates his
end of a consultation, after the doctor has made the di- symptoms. The duration of the symptoms (a few
agnosis of a viral infection which does not warrant anti- weeks) appears therefore to be accountable, in other
biotics. Transcribing the verbal content alone, it appears words to need explaining. The doctor addresses this
that the patient is happily accepting the doctor’s advice: accountability directly in her next turn:
Dr 9: I would suggest yes paracetamol is a good Dr 5: I must ask you (.) why have you come in to-
symptomatic treatment, and you’ll be fine day because it is a Saturday morning (1.0) it’s for
urgent cases only that really have just started
Pt K: fine, okay, well, thank you very much.
Pt F: Yes because it has been troubling me since
Representing (some) non-verbal features of the in- last last night (left hand still on neck)
teraction on the transcript changes the interpretation
of this two-line interaction (see Appendix, transcrip- This more detailed level of transcribing facilitates
tion conventions): analysis of the social relationship between doctor and
patient; in this example, the consequences for the doc-
Dr 9: (..) I would suggest (..) yes paracetamol or
tor–patient interaction of consulting in an urgent sur-
ibuprofen is a good (..) symptomatic treatment (..)
gery with ‘minor’ symptoms.16
um (.) (slapping hands on thighs) and you’ll be fine
Data must inevitably be reduced in the process of
Pt K: fine (..) okay (.) well (..) (shrugging should- transcribing, since interaction is hugely complex. Deci-
ers and laughing) thank you very much sions therefore need to be made about which features
 Transcribing 129

of interaction to transcribe: the level of detail neces- readability, but at the same time irons out the linguis-
sary depends upon the aims of a research project, and tic variety which is an important feature of cultural
there is a balance to be struck between readability and subcultural identity.20 For example, the following
and accuracy of a transcript.18 extract represents a patient speaking a Cockney En-
glish dialect (typically spoken by working class Lon-
doners), in consultation with a doctor speaking
Who should do the transcribing? English with Received Pronunciation (typically spo-
ken by educated, middle class English people):
Transcribing is often delegated to a junior researcher
or medical secretary for example, but this can be a mis- Dr 1: so what are your symptoms since yesterday

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take if the transcriber is inadequately trained or (..) the aches
briefed. Transcription involves close observation of
Pt B: aches ere (..) in me arm (..) sneezing (..) ed-
data through repeated careful listening (and/or watch-
ache
ing), and this is an important first step in data analysis.
This familiarity with data and attention to what is ac- Dr 1: ummm (..) okay (..) and have you tried any-
tually there rather than what is expected can facilitate thing for this (.) at all?
realizations or ideas which emerge during analysis.1
Pt B: no (..) I ain’t a believer of me- (.) medicine
Transcribing takes a long time (at least 3 hours per to tell you the truth
hour of talk and up to 10 hours per hour with a fine
level of detail including visual detail)5 and this should
Although this attempts to represent linguistic vari-
be allowed for in project time plans, budgeting for re-
ety, using a more literal spelling is difficult to read
searchers’ time if they will be doing the transcribing.
and runs the risk of portraying respondents as inartic-
ulate and/or uneducated.20 Even using standard writ-
ten English, transcribed talk appears faltering and
What contextual detail is necessary to
inarticulate. For example, verbal interaction includes
interpret data? false starts, repetitions, interruptions, overlaps, in- and
out-breaths, coughs, laughs and encouraging noises
Recordings may be difficult to understand because of
(such as ‘mm’), and these features may be omitted to
the recording quality (e.g. quiet volume, overlaps in
avoid cluttering the text.18
speech, interfering noise) and differing accents or styles
If talk is mediated via an interpreter, decisions must
of speech. Utterances are interpretable through knowl-
be made about how to represent translation on a tran-
edge of their local context (i.e. in relation to what has
script,8 for example, whether to translate ‘literally’,
gone before and what follows),8 for example, allowing
differentiation between ‘I don’t, no’ and ‘I don’t know’. and then to interpret the meaning in terms of the sec-
ond language and culture. For example, from French
Interaction is also understood in wider context such as
to English, ‘j’ai mal au coeur’ translates literally as ‘I
understanding questions and responses to be part of an
have bad in the heart’, interpreted in English as ‘I feel
‘interview’ or ‘consultation’ genre with particular ex-
sick’. Translation therefore adds an additional layer of
pectations for speaker roles and the form and content
interpretation to the transcribing process.
of talk.19 For example, the question ‘how are you?’
Written representations reflect researchers’ interpre-
from a patient in consultation would be interpreted as
tations. For example, laughter could be transcribed as
a social greeting, while the same question from a doctor
would be taken as an invitation to recount medical ‘he he he’, ‘laughter (2 seconds)’, ‘nervous laughter’,
‘quiet laughter’ or ‘giggling’ and these representations
problems.14 Contextual information about the research
convey different interpretations. The layout on paper
helps the transcriber to interpret recordings (if they
and labelling also reflect analytic assumptions about
are not the person who collected the data), for exam-
data.20 For example, labelling speakers as ‘patient’
ple, details about the project aims, the setting and par-
and ‘doctor’ implies that their respective roles in
ticipants and interview topic guides if relevant.
a medical encounter are more salient than other attrib-
utes such as ‘man’, ‘mother’, ‘Spanish speaker’ or ‘ad-
How should data be represented? vice giver’. Talk is often presented in speech turns,
with a new line for the next speaker (as in the data ex-
Written language is represented in particular standard- amples given), but could also be laid out in a timeline,
ized ways which are quite different from audible in columns or in stanzas like poetry, for example.7
speech. For example, ‘hwaryuhh’ is much more easily Transcripts are not therefore neutral records of events,
read and understood if represented as separate words, but reflect researchers’ interpretations of data.
with punctuation and capital letters, as ‘How are Presenting quotations in a research paper involves
you?’.20 Choosing to use the grammar and spelling further steps in reduction and representation through
conventions of standard UK written English aids the choice of which data to present and what to
130 Family Practice—an international journal

highlight. There is debate about what counts as rele- usually necessary to playback recordings repeatedly:
vant context in qualitative research.21,22 For example, a foot-controlled transcription machine facilitates this
studies usually describe the setting in which data were for analogue audio tapes (see Fig. 1) and transcribing
collected and demographic features of respondents software is recommended for digital audio or video
such as their age and gender, but relevant contextual files, since this allows synchronous playback and typing
information could also include historical, political and (see Fig. 2).
policy context, participants’ physical appearance, re-
cent news events, details of previous meetings and so
on.23 Authors’ decisions on which data and what con- Conclusion
textual information to present will lead to different

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framing of data. Representation of audible and visible data into written
form is an interpretive process which involves making
judgments and is therefore the first step in analysing
What equipment is needed? data. Decisions about transcribing are guided by the
methodological assumptions underpinning a particular
Decisions about the level of detail needed for a project research project, and there are therefore many differ-
will inform whether video or audio recordings are ent ways to transcribe the same data. Researchers
needed.24 Taking notes instead of making recordings need to decide which level of transcription detail is re-
is not sufficiently accurate or detailed for most qualita- quired for a particular project and how data are to be
tive projects. Digital audio and video recorders are represented in written form.
rapidly replacing analogue equipment: digital record- Transcribing is an interpretive act rather than simply
ings are generally better quality, but require computer a technical procedure, and the close observation that
software to store and process, and digital video files transcribing entails can lead to noticing unanticipated
take up huge quantities of computer memory. It is phenomena. It is impossible to represent the full

FIGURE 1 Analogue audio recording equipment: dictaphone with microphone and mini-cassette tape and foot-pedal controlled
transcription machine with headphones

FIGURE 2 Digital video recording equipment: video camera with firewire computer lead, mini DV cassette and Transana
transcribing software
 Transcribing 131
11
complexity of human interaction on a transcript and so Heath C. Body Work: The Collaborative Production of the Clinical
listening to and/or watching the ‘original’ recorded Object. Communication in Medical Care: Interaction between
Primary Care Physicians and Patients. 1st edn. Cambridge:
data brings data alive through appreciating the way Cambridge University Press, 2006: 185–213.
that things have been said as well as what has been said. 12
Greatbatch D, Heath C, Campion P, Luff P. How do desk-top com-
puters affect the doctor-patient interaction? Fam Pract. 1995;
12: 32–36.
13
Sarangi S, Roberts C. Talk, Work and Institutional Order. Berlin,
Acknowledgements Germany: Mouton de Gruyter, 1999.
14
Robinson J. Soliciting patients’ presenting concerns. In: Heritage J,
This paper derives from a PhD thesis written by Julia Maynard DW (eds). Communication in Medical Care: Interac-
Bailey entitled ‘Doctor-patient consultations for upper tion between Primary Care Physicians and Patients. 1st edn.

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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006: 22–47.
respiratory tract infections: a discourse analysis’, 15
Silverman D. The construction of delicate objects in counselling.
which was supervised by Celia Roberts, Roger Jones Discourse Theory and Practice. London: Sage, 2001: 119–137.
16
and Jane Barlow. Thanks are due to doctors and pa- Bailey JV. Doctor-Patient Communication in Consultations for Up-
tients who participated in the project, to practice staff, per Respiratory Tract Infections: A Discourse Analysis. PhD
Thesis, London: University of London, 2007.
and to Anne Rouse for her advice on the practicalities 17
Sacks H. Lecture 1: rules of conversational sequence. In: Jefferson
of transcribing. G (ed.). Harvey Sacks. Lectures on Conversation. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1992.
18
Tilley SA. ‘‘Challenging’’ research practices: turning a critical lens
on the work of transcription. Qual Inquiry. 2003; 9: 750–773.
Declaration 19
Maybin J. Language, struggle and voice: the Bakhtin/Volosinov
writings. In: Wetherell M, Taylor S, Yates SJ (eds). Discourse
Funding: Primary Care Researcher Development Theory and Practice. London: Sage, 2001: 64–71.
20
award, Department of Health National Coordinating Roberts C. The politics of transcription. Transcribing talk: issues of
representation. Tesol Q. 1997; 31: 167–172.
Centre for Research Capacity Development. 21
Schegloff EA. Whose text? Whose context? Discourse Soc. 1997; 8:
Ethical approval: East London and the City Ethical 165–187.
22
Committee. Wetherell M. Debates in discourse research. Discourse Theory and
Conflict of interest: None. Practice. London: Sage, 2001: 380–399.
23
Gesler WM. Words in wards: language, health and place. Health
Place. 1999; 5: 13–25.
24
Heath C. The analysis of activities in face to face interaction using
video. In: Silverman D (ed.). Qualitative Research: Theory,
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