Temperature Fig. 2.2. Phase equilibrium diagram on P-T co-ordinates 4. The sublimation, fusion and evaporation lines meet at point T, called the triple point. The triple point may thus be defined as the point at which all the three phases - solid, liquid and vapour co-exist in equilibrium. The triple point exists at a definite pressure and temperature. For water, triple point values are tyy = 0.01 °C and p,, = 0.611 kPa 5. Sublimation refers to the heating process where solid water or ice gets directly transformed to saturated vapour phase without first melting into water. The reverse of sublimation is referred to as ablimation, -®.6. ENTHALPY CHANGES DURING FORMATION OF STEAM nt Fig. 2.1 (a) which represents formation of steam from ice at = 10°C, Since supply of dot “stage so Pressure, the heat input can be taken equal to change in enthalpy. During the process of steam formation, the enthalpy changes are as follows : () Enthalpy changes from - 10 °C to 0 °C (process 1-2)100 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering ————__ t of ice (dit) 12 = jdt where ¢/18 the specific heal 2.09 {0 - (-10)} = 20.9 KI/ke ng, of ice at 0 °C (process 2~3) heat of fusion of ice = 335 J/kg ling /saturation temperatur, (i) Enthalpy change during melti (alt) 9-3 = latent °C to the boi (ii) Enthalpy change during heating of water from 0 °C fo 100°C (process 3-4) (ait) c., dt where ¢,, is the specific heat of water Pai we 4.186 (100 -0) = 418.6 KJ/kg (io) Enthalpy change during vaporisation at 100 °C (process 4—5) (dit) 4.5 = latent heat of vaporisation = 2256.9 kJ/kg. (2) Enthalpy change during heating of dry saturated steam upto say 250 °C. (process 5~6) (dt) 5.6 = Ss at where ¢,, is specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 (250 -100) = 315 kJ/kg It is to be noted that enthalpy quantities are always measured from some datum. The transformation of water from 0 °C into steam involves two Kinds of changes that take place on supply of heat at constant pressure. — temperature of water changes but phase remains the same. — phase changes but temperature remains constant. ‘The corresponding heat inputs are defined as : Sensible heat (/r,) : It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 0 °C to the boiling point or saturation temperature at a given pressure. Sensible heat is denoted by letter ly, and is also called total heat (or enthalpy) of water. Sensible heat increases as the pressure increases. Latent heat of vaporisation (Ij,) : It is the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at saturation temperature for a given pressure into dry and saturated steam at thal temperature and pressure. The value of latent heat is not constant, it decreases as the pressure increases and becomes zero when the critical pressure is reached. Depending upon the condition of steam, the heat or enthalpy values are defined as : () Total heat of wet steam : It represents the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg ¢f Water at 0°C into wet steam at constant pressure Iggy = y+ X Ng (24) where x is the dryness fraction of wet steam. The sensible heat increases with pressure. ii) Tot : it (i) To fat heat of dry saturated steam :Tt represents the quantity of heat required to convert 8 of water at 0°C into dry saturated steam at constant pressure hh = ligt hg = hy The enthalpy of dry saturated steam increases with pressure, 5)-F 104 Steam and its Proper ) Total neat of superheated steam : It represents the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into superheated steam at constant pressure Thay = ligt Ig + o,, (b (26) value of specific heat of. ia The value of specific heat of steam at constant pressure, depends upoa the degree of superheat and the pressure of steam generation, Its average value is taken from 2.0 to 2.1 kI/ke, 2.7. VOLUME OF DRY, WET AND SUPERHEATED STEAM The specific volume of a fluid is the volume occupied by a unit mass of the fluid. For dry saturated steam, it is denoted by the letter v,. Its value decreases with increase in pressure, and the values corresponding to different pressures are listed in steam tables. sup 4) Wet steam : The volume of 1 kg of wet steam equals the volume of dry portion of stzam plus the volume of water in suspension. If x is the dryness fraction of wet steam, then 1 kg of wet steam consists x kg of dry steam and (1 - x) kg of water in suspension. Thus the volume of wet steam is Vp = XV, + (1 - x) (2.7) where vyis the specific volume of water and v, is the specific volume of dry saturated steam. By re-arrangement, x = When x > 0.8 and p < 30 bar, the specific volume of water is practically insignificant and can be neglected. Accordingly, Pw Uy = xy and x= y (2.8) Superheated steam : The superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas and, therefore, its volume can be worked out by applying Charles law to steam at the beginning and at the end of superheating process. Thus (2.9) np where v, and T, are respectively the specific volume and absolute temperature of dry saturated Seam ang ANd Tay Fe respectively the specific volume and absolute temperature of superheated steam, 2.8. EXTERNAL WORK AND INTERNAL LATENT HEAT When water evaporates to form steam, its volume increases from v, to v, at constant »-ressure. The work is thus done by steam in increasing its volume. This work is called external work of evaporation. External work = p (2, - %) At low pressures, specific volume of water vis. extremely small compared to ¢ neglected. Then External work = p dg In case of wet steam with dryness fraction x, the volume of steam would be: and hence e210) and accordingly amy External work = p x 0102 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering A certain amount of latent heat supplied to water during the evaporation process! Utilized in expanding the volume and thus producing external work. The latent heat of steam minus th external work is called the internal latent heat. Internal latent heat = Iyg ~ p 2 (212) 2.9. INTERNAL ENERGY OF STEAM The actual heat energy above the freezing point of water stored in energy of steam. The work of evaporation is utilized in doing stored in the steam, Accordingly, internal energy of steam can the steam is known as interngy external work ‘and is thus no, be determined by subtracting work of evaporation from the total heat/enthalpy of steam. That is : w= Nt - po For wet steam : w= (yt x hg) ~ pxey For dry saturated steam: — u = (lip + lig) ~ Pg For superheated steam = ligt liyg + Cys (toup ~£9) ~ P Psup +-(2.13) 2.10. ENTROPY OF STEAM The heating and evaporation of water during the steam formation process takes place at constant pressure. Even superheating of steam is done at constant pressure. The entropy of steam can, therefore, be calculated by using the relations for entropy change at constant pressure. Entropy of water (s,) : Let one kg of water be heated from temperature T, to T, at constant pressure. Entropy change is then given by 8Q aT = =o, . T cays Upon integration from initial state 1 to final state 2, ds T a= Gee If 0°C is taken as datum : s, = 0 and T, = 273 K. That gives 5 = log, f= Be o73 where s,is the entropy of water at any temperature T above freezing point of water. If heating of water continues upto saturation temperature Ts, then log, J 5, = G log. ws 14) Entropy of evaporation (s,) : Evaporation of water takes place at constant pressure and constant temperature T,. The quantity of heat supplied during evaporation equals x Ii. if the steam is wet at the end of heat supply, and equals hg if the steam is dry saturated at the end of heat supply. Thus change of entropy during evapofation . = 7 for dry atid saturated steam xh ia . 7 for wet saturated steam with dryness fraction ¥ww ee Steam and its Properties // 103 Thus entropy of wet steam reckoned above the freezing point of water (0 °C) is given by wer ~ entropy of water + entropy change during evaporation xh Be TE Tt eh = 5+ x (5,-8) Likewise, the entropy of dry saturated steam (i, x = 1) (2.15) reckoned above 0 °C works out i Sdry = 5p “5+ 6 S)=5 (2.16) Entropy of superheated steam : Entropy change during superheating, which takes place at constant pressure, is given by heat of superheat _ 89 aT ds = SE superheat _ dy _, aT T T BT If T,,» is the temperature of superheated steam, and T, is the saturation temperature at the considered pressure, then T, hp ps 108. rT ds = Thus the total entropy of superheated steam reckoned above the freezing point of water 0°C)is Toy Seup = 57+ Spy + Cys log, fa 2217) ‘The specific heat of superheated steam, c,,, varies from 2.0 to 2.3 kJ/kg K depending upon degree of superheat and superheating pressure. ~ 2.11, STEAM TABLES ‘Thesimple laws of perfect gases donot apply to vapours, hence variations between their properties are depicted on charts and tables. The preparation of steam tables has been made possible by studying experimentally the various properties of steam at different conditions of steam formation. The experimental data was then utilized to formulate suitable equations of state in different regions, and subsequently obtain comprehensive data on steam properties. The steam tables give values of specific volume, enthalpy and entropy for saturated liquid and dry saturated vapour tabulated against pressure (p) or corresponding saturation temperature (I,). A typical structure of such ‘ables is given in Table 2.1. Such tables make it possible to rapidly find the basic characteristics of steam according to the en parameters. The method of interpolation is used to find the parameters for intermediate ‘Wes of pressure and temperature (not given in tables). ____ The properties of superheated steam are tabulated separately. The values of specific volume, Snthalpy and entropy not only depend on pressure but also on temperature or degree of superheat. A typical structure of such tables is given below. . sive val= — Table 7.1. 1, Properties of Dry Saturated steam Absolute | Saturation ] Specific Volume Specific enthalpy Specific entropy Pressure, bar | temperature m3/kg kJ/kg Kj/kg K P t % 2, hy hy h, s Se 5 10 1799 | 0.001127 | 0194 762.6 | 2013.6 | 27762 | 21382 | aas4e | 6.5825 30 2838 | 0.001216 | 0.0666 | 10084 | 17939 | 28023 | 26455 | 35382 | 6asa7 2. Properties of Dry Saturated steam Temperature | Absolute | Specific Volume Specific enthalpy Specific entropy °C pressure m/kg Ki/kg Wi/kgK bar t, P % ¥, hy Ig hy 5 al 10 0.0123 | 0.001004] 106.4 420 | 24777 | 25197 | 0151 | 8750 | soo 50 0.1235 | 0.0c1012 | 1203 | 2093 | 23827 | 25827 | aos | 7372 | sor Buaaulbug jes1ueysayy Jo solseg // POL| operties // 105 =o Steam aan ive Table 2.2, Properties of Superheated Steam FR = —— 7 fe a > as 250 300 350 | 400 2 8) jz a 0.474 05s | 0570 | O6i7 | @ . B.A 2960.7 3064 3167.7 3271.9 | § 7.059 7271 7A6 7.633 | 779% | e |G mae 0.152 0.169 o1s7 | 0.203 | (198.3) 4 2796.8 2923.3 3037.6 314.75 3255.8 | * S25 6.709 6.918 7.102 7.269 | The first horizontal line gives the tem column gives the absolute pressure in bi tothat pressure. The perature of steam in degrees celcius and the first vertical s ars alongwith the saturation temperture corresponding second, third and fourth horizontal lines show the specific volume, enthalpy and entropy of superheated steam arranged in increasing order of magnitude. EXAMPLE 2.1 Calculate the dryness fraction of steam which has 1.25 kg of water in suspension with 40 kg of steam. Solution : m, = 40 kg and m,,= 1.25 kg m, 40 tm, = 40+ 1.25 7 0.9696 = 0.97 Dryness fraction, x EXAMPLE 2.2 Using steam tables, determine the mean specific heat for superheated steam at 1 bar and between 150°C and 200°C. Solution : From steam tables of superheated steam and at 1 bar pressure, we have At 150°C: Igy, = 2776.4 KI/kg At200°C: Heyy = 2875.3 KJ/kg 2875.3 = 2776.4 + c,, (200 - 150) 75.3 — 5 oa Bie = 1978 ki/kg K EXAMPLE 2.3 Determine the state of steam, i.e., whether is wet, dry or superheated in the following cases (i) Steam has a pressure of 10 bar and specific volume 0.175 m’/kg. ii) Steam has a pressure of 15 bar and a temperature of 220 °C. (iii) Steam has a pressure of 20 bar and if 2700 kJ/kg of heat is required to generate the steam from water at 0 °C. Solution : (i) From steam tables, specific volume of dry saturated steam at 10 bar is v, = 0.194 m°/kg Since the specific volume of the steam whose quality is to be determined is less than the specific Volume of dry saturated steam, the steam is wet and its dryness fraction is given by specific volume of given steam at 10 bar Dryness fraction, x = “ral energy and entropy of superheated steam al ressure and 220 °C. The volume of water may be neglected and take specific heat of superheat equal to 2.2 Ki/kg K, golution : Corresponding to 15 bar Pressure, the following values can be read from the steam tables + Uy = 0.132 m3/kg ; hyp= 844.7 Kj/kg ; Ng = 1945.2 KI/ kg, ; 5, = 2.314 kJ/kg K ; Sg = 41261 ki/kg K and beg = 198.3 °C (0 Total heat of 1 kg of superheated steam ig Mayy = hy eg + Cy, (sup ~ at) ~ 844.7 + 1945.2 + 2.2 (220 - 198.3) =2837.64 kykg (i) The superheated steam behaves like a perfect Bas and as such cout by applying Charles’ law, ie, T, uy xe sup = 1: . 220 +273 5 © 0132 * 396-3 4 975 = 0.1381 m/kg (ii) External work = pv = 15 x 108 x 0.1381 = 207150 J = 207.15 kj Internal energy, u = h ,,, ~ external work = 2837.64 - 207.15 = 2630.49 kj/kg (iv) The entropy of superheated steam is log, Sup = 8 5+ ops 1080 2204273 = log, 04223 2.314. + 4.1261 + 2.2 log, 798.34373 7 6539 Ki/kg K EXAMPLE 2.12 Steam at 10 bar and 200 °C is cooled till it becomes dry saturated and is then throttled to 1 bar Pressure. Determine the change in enthalpy and heat transferred during each process. Also find the quality of steam at the end of throttling process. Take c,, = 2.25 kJ/kg K for superheated steam, 10 bar 4 10 bar Solution : 200°C ry saturated ae cooling throttling Fig. 2.3. At 10 bar and 200 °C (steam is superheated) y= Iayyq = 2827.9 KJ/kg At 10 bar and dry saturated, hy = lig + ly = 762.6 + 2013.6 = 2776.2 kI/kg, * Change in enthalpy during cooling, = hy ~ hy = 2827.9 - 2776.2 = 51.7 kI/kgOS 4 1110 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering 4 (ii) Throttling is a constant enthalpy process, i.e., Ah = 0 during process 23. Therefore, ¢ the throttling process, we can write hy = hy Atl bar: hg 417.5 kJ/kg and lijs = 2257.9 kJ/kg, 2776.2 = hg + Iigg + Spe At = 417.5 + 2257.9 + 2.25 At 2776.2 - 417.5 — 2257.9 _ ° -. Degree of superheat At = 555 44.8 °C EXAMPLE 2.13 — Steam from a boiler is delivered at an absolute pressure of 15 bar and dryness fraction of 0.¢5 into a steam supetheater in which the steam receives additional heat at constant pressure ang its temperature increases upto 300 °C, Determine the amount of heat added and the change in internal energy for unit mass of steam. Solution : For the initial state of steam at p = 15 bar and x = 0.95, we have from steam tables ny = tpn +1 Iga = 844.7 + 0.95 x 1945.2 = 2692.64 kJ/kg, Dy = % Vg = 0.95 * 0.132 = 0.1254 m3/kg y= hy PP 5x10! = 2692.64 - eee = 2504.54 kJ/kg The enthalpy and the specific volume of steam in the final state are found from tables for superheated steam (p = 15 bar and ¢ = 300 °C) hy = 3037.6 kJ/kg and v, = 0.169 m3/kg, 15 x10° x 0.169 Td = 2784.1 kJ/kg 3037.6 Uy = hy - po. +. Quantity of heat supplied in the superheater is 4 = hy ~ hy = 3037.6 ~ 2692.64 = 344.96 kj/kg, and change in internal energy is du = ty ~ u, = 2784.1 ~ 2504.54 = 279.56 ki/kg, EXAMPLE 2.14 Steam is supplied from the boiler at a pressure of 16 bar and 98 percent dry to a steam engin’ As the steam flows through the pipeline, its pressure remains constant but it loses 25 KVM of heat due to poor pipe insulation. What would be the condition (temperature and drynt* fraction) of steam at the engine end of pipe line ? Solution : Let suffix 1 and 2 refer to the state of steam at the boiler end and at the engine & of the pipe line. From steam tables at pressure 16 bar : f, = 201.4 °C Nig. = Mp = 858.6 KI/KR 5 gy = Igy = 1993.2 KJ/kg hy = fy + Iga = 858.6 + 0.98 x 1933.2 = 2753.14, kI/kg Mtg = Higa + 2 hygg = 858.6 + xy * 1933.2Steam and its Properties // 144 According (0 the given condition : ji, ~ 25 = Ny 2753.14 - 25 = 858.6 + 1933.2 x, — 2753.14 ~25 ~ 858.6 = Ee 3 ~ 858.6 2 1933.2 eae Thus the steam is 0.967 dry and has a temperature of 201.4 EXAMPLE 2.15 Aclosed metallic boiler drum of 0.25 m’ capacity holds steam at 10 bar pressure and 195°C. Determine the quantity of steam in the drum. (b) At what pressure in the drum the si cooled? (c) What would be the pressure and condition of steam in the drum if the cooling continues till the temperature of steam becomes 120.2°C ? Solution : The saturation temperature corresponding to 10 bar pressure is 179.9°C. The given steam has a temperature of 195°C which is higher than the saturation temperature. Therefore the given steam is superheated and its volume is given by Psy Teup _ 0.194 x (195 +273) _ a7 aT (179.9 + 273) volume of boiler drum specific volume of steam 0.25 °C at the engine end. team would become dry saturated if the drum is mm Mass of water = mass of steam = 25 kg 0.2 (b) At V_ = Vg, = 0.2 m’, the saturation pressure is 9.7 bar (0) After subsequent cooling the temperature becomes 120.2°C. At this temperature, saturation pressure = 2 bar specific volume of dry saturated steam = 0.885m°/kg Then ; 0.2=x% 0885; x= 0.225 Thus, when cooled to 120°C, the steam will be at 2 bar pressure and 0.225 dryness fraction. Heating and Expansion of Vapours Constant volume process: Consider unit mass of steam undergoing constant volume heating Process from initial wet state 1 (pressure p, and dryness fraction %,) to the final superheated State 2 (pressure P2 and temperature Tyupo) P. T Closed rigid 2 vessel Heat input v 54112 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering 4 dysy (i) Work done w, ve -ocess. Obvious the work done is zero in a constant volume Pr (ii) Applying the first law of thermodynamics ala 8q = Sw + du = uy - My + buey The enthalpy lt and internal energy are correl Quen = (lt, ~ Pav2)— (Ih ~ Pata) The enthalpy values at the end states are hy = Ny, +1 ftg, and hy = Nig, +p (Teupa —Teatt) “The heating or cooling of steam in a closed rigid vessel represents a constant volume proces EXAMPLE 2.16 © ——————————$—$____{$_$_$_$_ Steam at 10 bar pressure and 0.9 dryness fraction is cooled at constant volume at 160 °C. Why lated as h = u + pv. Then, will be its final condition ? Solution : Initial volume v, = (= x) By + Uy (1-22) Bf) + & Up volume remains constant, », = v2, and therefore, (La) Up #4 Ug, = CL ~ 2) Op * yO Neglecting specific volume of water, we may write, Final volume v, Sine X1 Up From steam tables : at 10 bar, 0 “0.9 x 0.194 X Ugo 2% 0.194 m3/kg and at 160 °C , v4 = 0.306 m?/kg xy * 0.306 0.9 0,194 0.306 EXAMPLE 2.17 -ssa SSS ee A pressure cooker contains 2 kg of steam at 5 bar pressure and 0.9 dryness fraction. Find tht quantity of steam which must be transferred so as the quality of steam becomes 60% dry. Al calculate the pressure and temperature of the steam that exists in the cooker after the he rejection, Solution: From steam tables corresponding to 5 bar pressure = 3, . ° ; 2, = 0.375 m?/kg ; It, = 640.1 kJ/kg and Ing = 2107.4 kJ/kg, Specific internal energy at the initial state 1, my = hy pyr = Opa + Mea) ~ Prt Oy = 0.5706 or 57.06% = (6401 +09 x 1074) - 520°(09x0.975) 10 = 2536.76 - 168.75 = 2368.01 KI/kgrties / 193 Steam a its Prop As the volume remains constant during the cooling process : Per = XpV_9 go = Ao, = 98 0.375 = 0.5625 m3/kg, ea) 0.6 . B The corresponding steam Properties as read from the steam tables are : P2 = 3.25 bar; ty = 136.25°C hy = 573.2 K)/kg ; hygy = 2155.1 kJ/kg Now : up = Itpy + x2 Ngo ~ Po Xp gp = (673.2 + 0.6 x 2155.1) - 2:25%210" x (0.6 x 0.5625) a pues) = 1866.25 - 109.68 = 1756.57 kJ/kg Heat to be transferred Q = du =u, - uy = 1756.57 ~ 2368.01 = - 611.44 J/kg Total heat transferred = 2 x (— 611.44) = - 1222.88 kj The - ve sign implies that heat is rejected from the system. The steam remaining in the pressure cooker after rejection of heat is at : pressure = 3.25 bar and temperature = 136°25 C EXAMPLE 2.18 Arigid tank of 1 m? volume contains dry saturated steam at 0.2 MPa. Due to poor insulation, there is heat transfer to the surroundings and the pressure drops to 0.1 MPa after some time. Make calculations for the final condition of the steam and the amount of heat transferred. Solution : At 0.2 MPa (2 bar) 0 = Y,1 = 0.885 m?/kg ve 1 1” 0.885 At 0.1 MPa (1 bar) v2 = (1 ~ x2) Up + Xp Ugp = X:Vyp = 1.694 xy Since the tank is rigid, the volume remains constant (v, = v,) and therefore, 1.694 x, = 0.885; x, = 0.522 7 was the final condition of steam corresponds to wet steam of dryness fraction 0.522 at a (i), = hg, (dry steam at 0.2 MPa) = 2706.3 kJ/kg hy = Ng + Xz Ngo (wet steam at 0.1 MPa) = 417.5 + 0.522 x 2257.9 = 1596.12 kJ/kg For a constant volume process work done is zero and therefore, from principle of energy Conservation Mass of steam m = = 113 kg 2 = du = (ug ~ uy) = (hy = Poa) ~ (hy ~ PyPs) = (tp - In) - 1 2 - Pv) 0.885 (0.1 - 0.2) x 108 = (1596.12 - 2706.3) - { 0 = - 1021.68 kJ/kggineering ——— 414 11 Basics of Mechanical En — red as neat 10 te surroundings «Total energy transfer = mh? : 13 * (2021-68) = = 11585 ng ofsteam undergone 288 Os fraction *1) © the fina constant pressure heat, 1 | superheat nit M Constant Pressure Proc myn process from initial wet state (pressures Pap temperature Topo)? Pa : 2 2 (pressure p and P ‘ess: Consider sssure, Py v Heat input Fig. 2.5- ‘The specific volumes and specific enthalpies at the initial and final states can be found frox the steam tables. aM 7 ny = + Mt er 1 = U2 OOF On = OP Tata 2 (i) Work done 1).2 = fi (Taupo * Tet2) hy = hg, +p paVv= ple, - %) are correlated as h = u +P? Then (lig =I) - P22 PA”) iy ~ hy) - Pr ~ %1) (ii) Applying the first law of thermodynamics By = but du; 2 =P2-%) * (hy = (ty - fy) nstant pressure is equal to changes in enthalpy. ant pressure heating process: 1 {i The enthalpy ft and internal enerBy Change in internal energy (H ~ %) = = hy) - pz - 2) Apparently the heat transfer at co ‘The generation of steam in a boiler represents a const EXAMPLE 2.19 aa accep ly contains one kg of wet steam of quality 0.8 at 0.1 Ml akes place at constant pre’ i ‘ ii Make calculations for the work done and Terenas temperature of stam #36510 Solution : For a constant pressure process ,_ » = tt iin For steam tables at 0.1 MPa (1 bar) aie 2, _ Eners! (Pa. Rd 4 - (Lom) eat a M1 =m My = 0.8 x 1.694 = 1.3552 m*/kg Vsyp (1 bar and 350 °C) ; by interpol 552 m*/kg 2.639 43.103 polation = 2.871 m3/k; Worl 4 fork done w,_) = 0.1 x 108 (2.871 - 1.3552) = 151580 J = 151.58 kJ/kgyr _—— Steam and its Properties // 115 (i Again from steam tables at 0.1 MPa (1 bar) hy = hy + x, Ne 74175 + 0.8 x 2257.9 = 2923.82 kj/kg 2 =Msyp (1 bar and 356 °C) ~ 3074.3 + 3278.2 TS = 3176.25 1 /kg For a constant pressure process the heat interaction e Heat interaction = (h, - hy) h, quals the change in enthalpy = 3176.25 ~ 2223.82 = 952.43 ki/kg EXAMPLE 2.20 Wet steam at 20 bar pressure and 0.9 dryness fraction is heated reversibly at constant pressure toa temperature of 300 °C. Make calc: ulations for the work done, heat supplied and changes in internal energy and entropy. Rep: resent the process on T—s diagram and indicate there upon the area which represents the heat interaction. Solution : Refer to Fig 2.6. For a constant pressure process, Wy2 =P @)- %) From steam tables at 20 bar 21 = (L~) on +x, Og = By = 0.9 * 0.0995 = 0.08955 m3/kg, V2 = yy» (20 bar and 300 °C) 2p =20bar Heat suppliod ‘Temperature —> = 0.125 m3/kg ! + Work done w,_, = 2 * 105 (0.125 - 0.08955) " entropy ——» = 70900 J/kg = 70.9 kJ Fig. 2.6. Again from steam tables at 20 bar, 4, 4 tn +8 Men = 907 + 0.9 x 1693 = 2430.7 kJ/kg My = Wgyy (20 bar and 300 °C) = 2772.6 kJ/kg “ Change in internal energy du = (up~ 1,) = 2772.6 - 2430.7 = 341.3 ki/kg From the principle of energy conservation, 2 = Wy + du = 70.9 + 341.3 = 412.2 kifkg Altematively : For a constant pressure process, the heat interaction equals the change in enthalpy. hy Ng +X Igy * caf 108.6 + 0.9 x 1888.6 = 2608.34 kJ/kg j hy = Itayy (20 bar and 300 °C) = 3023.5 kJ/kg *: Heat interaction = hy - hy = 3023.5 - 2608.34 = 415.16 kJ/kg416 || Basics of Mechanical ‘Again from steam t 1 ables at () bars +x, Sit N70! 25,948 K)/ke °C) = 6.766 kJ/ kB K 20 bar and 300 _ 0.818 Ki/k6 & 5q = Soup |. Entropy change 82 ~ 51> 66 - 5.998 = ene steam undergoing Leven from initial superheated state 1 (pressure p, and te . ction %) “ sion process adiabatic expan: fe 2 (pressure I’2 to final wet stat ( During isentropic process, entropy remains constant. Thus, Tour 5, = 5) Sa + cp lopez Sh +225 fen sat - I, sy, +Cploge p lOBe Sf “n reais ” fis (i) Change in internal energy, hs reeDA 7 ty = My = (ty ~ Pa2) ~ (i - Pr?) where 0; = %_, % = 1a ey Mae and B= 2M, h ) and hy My, +2 eat y= Ia, pCtags Ten ‘or a re i i smal wersible adiabatic process, no heat ad. ded to or subtracted from the * 4270 Then from first law of thermodynami eee ce 2 = (Ny = py?) ~ (ly - ppp) cen ee asl # Dry saturated steam ini i 1m initiall cylinder fitted with a fri ly at a pressu af ressure of 60 ; expands to a pressure fricionless piton, As th 0 kPa is contained | kPa. Calculate the wi pion moves aieah a thermally # ark done by s y outwards, # y steam. Solution : At i state point?: —p, = 600 kPa (6 by ar) and ri 700 en an wate : 1 = Sy 6,761 k| oK 1 point 2: py = 60 kPa (0.6 ing Roms ap ©Mm and its Pi sf 497 129 kj /ke, = 1.145 kJ/kg K and 5), = 6.386 kJ/kg K 2 8 5, = 6.386 kj/ kg K since the cylinder is perfectly insulated, te te and therefore, 60 kJ/kg 5 Wye there is no heat interaction, iv., the process is adial Sp 46.761 = 1.145 + x, x 6,386 6.761 ~1.145, 6.386 and ty = up + xy oi = 0.879 4 2 = 360 + 0.879 x 2129 = 2231.39 kJ/kg, From the non-flow energy equation ha = M2 (ly - 4) 0 = wy.» + (2231.39 - 2568) +: Work done w, = 2568 - 2231.39 = 336.61 ki/kg, . Constant temperature (isothermal) process: Consider unit mass of steam undergoing heat addition at constant temperature from initial wet state 1 (pressure p, and dryness fraction x,) to final superheated state 2 (pressure p, and temperature Tuya) . Fig. 2.8. For an isothermal process, the temperature and pressure remain constant in the wet region, ie, p, =p, and T, = T,. Once the steam is in superheated region, it behaves like a perfect gas and obeys the gas laws. Apparently then the expansion process - 2 in superheated region is hyperbolic, ie, py, = py dy The entire process 1-2 can be analysed in two parts : (i Process 1-a: Heating of wet steam at a constant temperature till it becomes dry saturated. s is similar to heating at constant pressure and accordingly Wy-g = Pq ~ 2) where p; =p, =P = (hy ~ Fy) ~ Pa ~ %) Gra =H ~ By . (ii) Process a-2: Heating of steam at constant temperature in the superheated region is hyperbolic, “2, it follows the Boyle’s law pv = constant. For that e : = Pata Pag = Po Vsup2 f 0 Po Then the temperature Tuy can be-worked out by applying Charle's law. That ts a Tr Ty418 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering where T, = saturation temperature corresponding to pressure p, ( p,) and 0, = specific volume of dry saturated steam at pressure p, Polytropic process (po" = constant): Consider unit mass of steam undergoind polytrop;, process from initial state 1 (pressure p,, dryness fraction x,) to final state (pressure p,, drynes, fraction x,). Then Prey Poy"; Pr(% Vg)" = Pr (Fa ep,)" \ ata (ar Us, | P2 Depending on the value of x, the steam at its final state would be wet (if x» <1); dry saturate (if x, = 1) and superheated (if x, > 1) ; The volume and temperature of the superheated steam can be determined as follows : ny" Put)" = pa(Oaga)” 5 ay = 31%, () FE P2 Usup2 v; Veup2 . roe Tyg = Tet. Tsp ~ Tear ‘sep? 2, ‘a where T.,. is the saturation temperature corresponding to pressure Pz ()) Work done w,_, = PLP = P2t2 m1 (ii) Change in internal energy du =u, ~ u, = (Ita ~ Py.) - (hy - p24) (iii) Heat absorbed or heat transferred M2 = Wy2 + du = wy_5 + (uy ~ uy) The enthalpy values are read from the steam values corresponding to the initial and final conditions of steam, That is Iho My +t hg, and hy = hy tx hp, = hy +hp, for sry saturated state = lp, + tg, + ¢p Tsao ~ Toya) for superheated state EXAMPLE 2.22 for wet state Steam at 10 bar and 250°C expands polytro b 0 Pically to a pressure of 1 bar. If tn for the polytropic process is 1.2, calculate (i) specific volume and tem; ante fe Sansa (a heat interaction, and (iif) change in entropy, aad Solution : At 10 bar and 250 °C (steam is superheated) 2 = 0.2328 m3/kg ju, = 2711 Ki/kg hy = 2944 \J/kg and 926 kI/kg K AS PrP" = P20" 5 02 = 0, (py/py)V/n a V2 = 0.2328 x (10) 1/12 = At 1 bar (state point 2) », 694 m3/kg & 17 ISG i Wp = 2089 KI/kg = 1 1.586 mike / "aNp = 417 Ki/kg ; 258 KI ky , Sp = 1.303 ite and Spa = 6.056 kJ/kg, ince ®> < Y%2_ the steam is wet with dryness fraction 2, _ 1.586 1.694 7 0.936 x)= Pen ‘The temperature after expansion will be the saturation te 99.6 °C mperature corresponding ies 3 My “Up +X Wa = 417 + 0.936 x 2089 = 23728 kI/ke hy = hip * x2 Ngo = 417 + 0.936 x 2258 = 2530.5 kJ/kg 82 = Sp + Xp Seo = 1.303 + 0.936 x 6.056 = 6.971 kJ/kg Pi = P20» done w,_5 = Work done w,. = PL=P = 10x 10° x 0.2328 - 1x 10° x 1.586 oS ae = 371000 J = 371 kJ From principle of energy conservation, Heat interaction = q)_9 = (uy ~ 1) + w,_> = (2372.8 - 2711) + 371 = 32.8 ki/kg, Entropy change = s, ~ s, = 6.971 - 6.926 = 0.045 kJ/kg K EXAMPLE 2.23 Wet steam at 1.5 bar and 9.8 dry occupies a volume of 0.05 m? ina cylinder where compression takes place so that pv = constant (that is hyperbolically) until the volume has fallen to one- fifth of the original volume. Determine the work and heat transfers and the final condition of steam, Solution : Specific volume of dry saturated steam at 1.5 bar = 1.159 m3/kg Mass of steam, m = 7359 3<0,8 = 0.0539 kg Vy _ 0.05 Final volume, V, = oh 7001 m? VY Final pressure, p= Pi (] =15%5=7.5 bar A If x, is the dryness fraction of steam after compression to 7.5 bar, then 27 Taxa ~ 0.0530x 0.2565 ~ 0728 where 0) = Saree (by interpolation) 0.2565 is the specific volume of dry saturated steam at 7.5 barMy yt et = 467 + 0.8 x 2052 = 2108.6 KI/ky Hy = Mp + Xp Mhgo = BOAT 723( _ 1687) = 2057.8 kI/kg + Total change in internal energy m (Wy = 4) = 0.0539 (2057.8 - 2108.6) Work done during compression ~ 2.738 kJ (decrease) y seas toe 2 =p, Vy Bey = 1.5 * 10° « 0.05 log, = - 12070.8 J = - 12.07 kJ The negative sign implies that work was done on the system From non-flow energy equation, 8Q = ow+du = -12.07 + (- 2.738) = - 14.81 kJ The negative sign implies that heat will flow from steam to walls of cylinder. 2.12. TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY (T-s) AND ENTHALPY-ENTROPY (h-s) DIAGRAMS The solutions to problems dealing with steam vapour as working substance are easily and rapid) obtained by referring to charts/diagrams which have been Prepared by having the data fre steam tables. The salient features of two such plots which are of considerable importance = mentioned below : (a) Temperature-entropy (I-s) diagram: () The absolute temperature is plotted on the axis of ordinate and entropy on the abscis (i) The liquid boundary line originates at the axis of ordinates at a temperature of 273164 this has to be so because entropy of liquid at the triple point is equal to zero. (ii) The boundary curves (liquid line ABCDE) and the saturated vapour line (EFGHI) di the diagram into three parts ; to the left of AE is the liquid region, between the line! ; and Elis the wet vapour region, and to the Tight of line E1 is the region of superheated St" (2) The boundary curves meet at point E which is the critical point of water with prose 221.2 bar and temperature 647.31 K, (v) The constant pressure lines are parallel to the constant temperature lines in the wet 2 ., These lines become curved in the superheated region, oO re een or constant ene fraction and constant volume ie ee (ei) Theslopesof constant pressurelineinfhelinnah oer ea nes the superested ty the tata She liquid, wet and superheated region are gev ar (z)-Steam and its Propert 121 (Critical point 647.31 K E Temperature Isothermal 0.00611 bar 273.16 K s Entropy Fig. 2.9. Temperature-Entropy Diagram (ix) The area confined between the line of a reversible process and the abscissa represents the quantity of heat added to 1 kg of working medium, and is equal to q = fras. (2) An isothermal process plots as horizontal line and a reversible represented by a vertical line. The temperature-entropy diagram permits observation of change in the temperature of working medium and makes it possible to find the quantity of heat involved in the process. Accordingly itis put to an extensive use in the investi igation of thermodynamic processes and cycles, (6) Enthalpy-entropy (h—s) diagram : Steam generation is done at constant pressure and for constant pressure heating 5q = dit. Thus calculations for heat supplied can be done readily if enthalpy-entropy diargam is drawn tather than. temperature-entropy diagram. In the enthalpy-entropy (ht — diagram, enthalpy is laid along the axis of ordinate and entropy along the axis of abscissa. Such a diagram was suggested. by Mollier in 1904 and it is usually referred to as the Mollier diagram, The following observations (in be made from Fig. 2.10 which shows the general characteristics of h — s diagram showing Water line and saturation line as one-curve : adiabatic process is (The diagram can be divided into three regions. Below boundary curves 1—A~2 is the tegion of wet saturated steam. The region of superheated steam lies above the “per boundary curve A—2, and that of liquid is to the left of lower boundary curve 1—A. Bez ds A are and have converging tendency towards origin. In this region, the constant tempera lines coincide with the constant pressure lines. dh (ii) Constant pressure lines are straight in the wet region as their slope is equal to 7122 // Basics of Mechanical Engineering oe Region of superheated steam Enthaipy Upper boundary curve Lower boundary curve Region of wet steam Constant quality lines os Entropy Fig. 2.10. Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram (Mollier Chart) (ti). In the region of superheated steam, the isobaric and isothermal lines diverge; the isobar lines have a positive slope and turn upwards, and the constant temperature lines tend towards a horizontal straight line. This may be attributed to the fact that at high temperatures the behaviour of superheated steam approaches that of an ideal gas : I= f (7) alone. (iv) Lines of constant dryness fraction, shown in the wet region, issue from point A. They a? approximately parallel to the saturation line which corresponds to quality equal to unit’ (v) Anetwork of constant volume lines may also be plotted ; these isochors rise more steep! upwards compared with the isobars. (i) The throttling process, which is a constant enthalpy process, appears as a horizontal lin A reversible adiabatic process plots as a vertical line. The saturated liquid region is not required for solving engineering problems. This makes Possible to make the working part of the diagram on a larger scale {or greater convenien® Accordingly, in the commercial Mollier charts, the water line is dispensed with and only the d" the usual constant temperature, constant press and constant quality lines, The throttling process has been shown represented by line 1-2 and the isentropic process by line a~b~c. The Mollier chart is a useful t turbin 3 ant such as no. with an ae ‘ol in the analysis of steady flow device: 'es. The chart makes it possible to Tapidly determine the steam parametee sufficient for practical purposes and toa change in the state of steam, h am and its Properties / 183 Sives solution to many thermodynamic pre Constant temperature lines Dry saturated line Constant ° pressure lines . Constant quality lines Entropy Fig. 2.11. Commercial Mollier chart EXAMPLE 2.24 Represent the following processes on h—s co-ordinates and use the Mollier diagram for obtaining solution to these processes for the mentioned conditions : (a) Steam initially dry and saturated at 15 bar is throttled to a pressure of 1.5 bar. What is the final condition of steam and the entropy change during the process ? | ©) Steam initially at 0.95 dry and 12 bar expands isentropically in a non-flow process to a final dryness fraction of 0.8. What is the final pressure of steam and enthalpy change during the process ? Solution : Refer Fig. 2.12. (®) ( Locate the state point 1 which is the point of intersection of constant pressure line 15 bar and the dry saturated line. (i) Enthalpy remains constant during throttling and as such the throttling Process is represented by a horizontal straight line. Draw a horizontal straight line from Point 1 until it meets the constant __ Pressure line 1.5 bar at point 2. (ii) Drop perpendiculars from the initial and final state points on the axis of abscissa.