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Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling

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Subject E1

Table of Content
Books
Device Structure and Physical Operation (Additional)
Minority-Carrier Distribution
DC Biasing
Amplifier without DC Biasing
BJT as Amplifier
Large Signal Model
Small Signal Model & Transconductance
Operating Point
Early Effect
Pi Model
Pi Model Circuit with Consideration of Early Effect
In Class
Large Singal Modeling

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 1

 Relation between Voltage
Early Effect
Small Signal Modelling
Transconductance
Input Resistance
DC Biasing & Pi Model
Full Circuit Model
Small Signal Model
Pi Modeling

Books
Device Structure and Physical Operation (Additional)
Minority-Carrier Distribution
Full Explanation

This example use an npn transistor operating in the active mode

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 2

 Obseve that since the doping concentration in the emittter ND is much higher than
doping concentration in baase NA ⇒
concentration of e− injected from emitter to
base np (0), much higher than concentration of holes injected from the base to
emitter pn (0)

np (0) = np0 evBE /VT

where np0 is the thermal equilivrium value of the minority-carrier (electron)
concentration in teh base region

Next, since the base is very thin, then concentration of excess e− decays almost
linearly

Furthermore, the reverse bias on the collector-base junction causes the

concentration of excess e− at the collector side of the base to be 0

The electron diffusion current In is directly proportional to slope of concentration

dnp (x) np (0)

In = AE qDn = AE qDn ( − )
dx W
where

AE is the cross-secotional area of the base-emitter junction

q is the magnitude of the electron charge
Dn is the electron diffusivity in the base
W is the effective width of the base
NOTE: since there is a negative slop ⇒ results in a negative current In across the
base ⇒ In flows from right to left (negative direction of x)

The concave shape is the result of recombination process in the base region even
through it is very slight

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 3

 We have the collector current ic = In ⇒ ic is also negative. Therefore, if we take
the negative direction of x-axis as the positive direction of ic⇒ we can drop the
negative sign an obtain

ic = IS evBE /VT
where the saturation current is given by

AE qDn np0
IS =
W
since np0 = n2i /NA , we can express IS as

AE qDn n2i
IS =
NA W

DC Biasing
The DC by a circuit ensures that the BJT is in its linear region, that is BE Junction is
forward and CB Junction is reverse biased.

We have 2 methods to obtain a bias circuits

Thevenin Way

Advantaege: almsot independent of the transistor characteristics

Short Cut Way

Picture

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 4

 Amplifier without DC Biasing
Explanation

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 5

 Based on the large signal model, the collector current is given by

) − 1)
VBE
IC = IS  (exp(
VT

In the circuit above, we have

IS = 5 x 10−16  A

IC = −Vout /RL

⟹ Vout = −RL  IS (exp( ) − 1)

VBE
VT

The typical value of VBE is 0.7V. In order for this amplifier to work, then VCE ≥
VBE
But since the source voltage is only 10mV ⇒ no value of RL will result in Vout =
0.7V
⟹ That's why we need DC biasing

BJT as Amplifier
Figure

One of the most common application of the BJT is the Amplifier Circuit

And to use the BJT as the amplifier, we need to apply the DC voltage to the BJT circuit
and this called DC biasing

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 6

 Furthermore, to use the BJT as the amplifier, we need to conduct 2 kind of analysis

DC analysis ⇒ to find out the operating point of the circuit and the
AC analysis ⇒ to find out the voltage gain as well as the input and output
impedance

We will need to modify the BJT as the Transistor Model

When the BJT is used as the amplifier, it will consist of 2 part: DC + AC . Base on the
magnitude of the input signal, there are 2 kinds of model

Large Signal Model - DC

Small Signal Model - AC

Large Signal Model

When the input signal is large then the behavior of the device is non-linear

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 7

 This large signal model is only valid in the forward active region

Relationship of IC and VCE

So for the fixed valued of VB or the fixed valued of current IB , if we change the
voltage DC, then in this active region the collector current IC almost remains
constant

This means that for a given value of VB , we can assume that the current flowing
from Collector to Emitter is constant and can be replace by a current control source

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 8

 ⟹ This is the Large Signal Model of BJT in the forward active region

The non-linear characteristic of IC  vs VBE

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 9

 This is the non-linear characteristic between IC  and VBE

Whenever VBE change a small amount, the collector current IC will varies
significantly

Usually used Circuit Model

As we conduct the DC analysis of this model, we can assume that VBE = 0.7V
Using the KVL law for either 1 of the loop and relationship IC = βIB we can
always find all the necessary value in this circuit

Small Signal Model & Transconductance

To be able to use the BJT in linear domain, we use a small signal. Small singal can be
inseted by biasing

The purpose of biasing is to provide voltage and current so that the transistor can
amplify in the absence of any signal

Most Common DC-biasing

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 10

 Small Signal Model Explain

Let's say that on the large signal model, we add an AC source and this small
pertubance is called ΔVBE

Since there is a small change in voltage VBE there will also a change in collector
current IC

The ratio between the change in IC and the change in VBE is called
transconductance

ΔIC
gm =     (A/V )
ΔVBE

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 11

 Transconductance shows how the change in VBE will be translated into the change
in IC

′
Relationship between the IC of small signal vs IC of large singal model and
Transconductance

Note that the condition to use the small signal model is that ΔVBE
is quite small

Since the change in ΔVBE is small, then it will result in decent change in IC

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 12

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 13
 When the change in IC and VBE is small enough, we can express the
transconductance as derivative

dIC
gm =
dVBE

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 14

 If we replace ΔVBE as we defined ealier, then

V0
IC = IS  exp( ) + gm Vmsin(ωt)
VT

1 way to find transconductance gm by measurement is

keep VCE fixed

Vary VBE and measure IC

Resistance in VBE loop

ΔIC gM ΔVBE
ΔIB = =
β β
According to this relationship, we can say that this is a linear characteristic, thus we
can place a resistor accross the BE junction, this is called rπ

Δ β
Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 15
 ΔVBE β
rπ = =
ΔiB gm

rπ is the small signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the
base

We use lower case letter for small signal model or AC signal and upper case letter
for large signal modle or DC signal

Thus the Collector Current in large signal can be represented in change of Vπ

ΔIC = gm Vπ

Operating Point
Operating point is defined as the baias values chosen for VBE and IC

BJT can act as a voltage dependent current source

The operating point determines how the transistor responds

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 16

 Early Effect
As we have discuss the relationship between IC and VCE is that: for any change is
made in Collector-Emitter Voltage ⇒ There is no change in IC . In other words, IC is
independent of VCE

But actually, there is a small rising in value of IC whenever we change VCE ⇒ This
effect is called Early Effect

Actual Graph of Relationship btw IC  and VCE

We notice that there is a slop here indicating that IC varies slightly

Full Explanation

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 17

 Considering the large signal model, we see that

The junction in Base-Emitter Region is forward biased ⇒ The Depletion region

will be relatively small

The junction in Collector-Base Region is reverse biased ⇒ The Depletion

region will be wider

As we increase the voltage VCE , the depletion region in Collector-Base will be

more reverse biased ⇒ This will leads to a Wider Depletion Region
Due to this increase, we notice that the Effective Base Width will decrease. In
other word, for the fixed valued of VBE , the base width will be the function of VCE

⟹ Since we can change the base width by changing the value of VCE ⇒ This effect
is known as Base Width Modulation

Since the Base Width is reduced, the combination process in Base-

Emitter Junction is reduced ⇒
More electrons is able to cross the

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 18

 base region ⇒ current IC will increase
Calculation

Due to this 2 facts

Current IC depends on the voltage VCE

Reverse Saturation Current IS is inversely propertional to base width

1
Is ∝
WB

⟹ We can express current IC as

VBE VCE
IC ≈ IS  exp( )(1 + )
VT VA
Where VA is known as the Early Voltage

Early Voltage Graph Illustration

Now we introduce the variable α - common-Base current gain

α
β=
1+α

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 19

 Therefore, we have

IS VBE
IB =  exp( )
β VT

IE = IB + IC
Now we want to find the Collector current IC when considering the Early Effect
and the Collector current IC0 when not considering the Early Effect

VCE VCE VCE

IC = IC0 (1 + ) = IC0 + = IC0 +
VA VA/IC0 r0
Where r0 = VA /IC0 is the output resistance

Now since we have introduce the change in VCE , we will determine the expression
of this change ΔVCE

Figure

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 20

 Since a change in VCE will result in the change in IC , thus we can express

VBE VCE + ΔVCE

IC + ΔIC = IS  exp( )[1+( )]
VT VA
Therefore we can say that

VBE ΔVCE ΔVCE

IC = IS  exp( )( ) = IC0 ( )
VT VA VA
From this we conclude that

ΔVCE
ΔIC
= r0 = VA
IC 0
≃ VA
IC

IC0 ≃ IC

Large Model Signal with Early Effect

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 21

 ′
Note that IC = IC0

Small Signal Model with Early Effect

Pi Model
Recall that

Transconductance gm of a bipolar transistor is defined as the change in the

collector current divided by the change of the base-emitter voltage

∂IC IC
gm = =
∂VBE VT

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 22

 Base input resistance rπ is defined as the change of the emitter-base voltage
divided by the change of the base current

∂VBE VBE β VT
rπ = =β = =
∂IB IC gm IB

Derivation of π model when consider Early Effect

Then we have the collector current when consider the AC voltage

vCE
iC = gm vπ +
r0
Recall that r0 = VA /IC0

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 23

 Pi Model Circuit with Consideration of Early Effect
Figure Circuit

Some important formula need to take in serious consideration

IC0 1 + VCE
gm =
VT VA
Vπ = ΔVBE = VBE
ΔVBE ΔVBE β
rπ = =β =
ΔIB ΔIC gm
VA + VCE VA
r0 = ≈
IC IC0
And note these current expression

iB = ΔIB

iC = ΔIC

iE = ΔIE
Where the lower case letter iB ,  iE ,  iC means the change when apply an AC source

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 24

 The upper case letter IC ,  IB ,  IE indicates the current in large model signal (DC only)

In Class
Bipolar Junction Transistor

v BE
IC = IS (e VT
− 1)

The Collector Current is the same as the diode current

where IS depend on the concentration of the BASE

The BASE region should be Thinen (as thin as possible) ⇒ to lower the change of
recombination when e− injected from emitter to base

To turn the e− form minority to majority, we use reverse biased to collect the
electrons

Because the base region is very thin, the e− from the emitter punch through the
BASE region into the COLLECTOR

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 25

 In order to exist reverse biased in Collector-Base junction and forward biased in
Emitter-Base junction ⇒ must satisfy

⎧vC > vB > vE

⎨
⎩
VCE > VBE

Large Singal Modeling

iC is independent from the voltage VBE

This Model is Non-Linear ⇒ we try to Linearize this circuit

we let

IC = βIB
Where β is the forward current gain

Relation between Voltage

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 26

 Scientist have found out that if VBE < 0.7V ⟹ nothing happend and current will
equal to 0

Collector Curent vs Voltage relationship

Since

ΔIC
=0
ΔVCE
The collector Current is ideally independent of VCB

Early Effect

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 27

 Because the base is thinner ⇒ more electrons will punch throught the base to the
collector

This will results in larger collector current IC ⇒ known as Early Effect

The collector current DOES depend on VCE

As VCE increase, the depletion width at C − B junction also increase and the
effective base width decrease ⇒
More e− will punch through the base region. As a
result, IC increase

This effect is knowns "Early Effect"

NOTE: The higher the voltage ⇒ The wider the depletion region width
Thus, due ot the Early Effect, we have

IC ≥ IC0
Where IC0 is the original collector current

IC0 IC
=
VA VA + VCE
Then collector current can be written as

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 28

 IC0
IC = (VA + VCE )
VA

VCE
⟹ IC = IC0 +
VA/IC0
where

VCE ∂VCE VA
= = = r0
iC ∂IC IC0
Where r0 is known as output resistance

Recall that the Saturation Current Density

)
Ln Ln
Jsat = qn2i  ln( +
ρn NA ρn NA

But because ND is heavily doped in emitter region in npn transistor, thus

)
Ln
Jsat = qn2i  ln(
ρn NA

Small Signal Modelling

Explanation

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 29

 VBE = V0 + Vin
where V0 is the reverse biased voltage

Vin is the small signal

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 30

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 31
 This last equation is called the Small Singal Model where we input a small signal
and result an amplifier net current

From now on, we will not use large signal model but instead Small Signal Model

Picture

In small signal analysis, we ignore the large signal componet

We ignore IC0 , but in stead focus on ΔIC0

The small signal of VBE will be ΔVBE

Transconductance

ΔIC d
gm = = (IC )
ΔVBE dVBE

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 32

 now replace IC in terms of IS

ΔIC IS VBE
= exp( )
ΔVBE VT VT
IC
⟹ gm =
VT
relation of iC and vBE

IC = IC0 + ΔIC ⟹ ΔIC = gm ΔVBE

ic = gm vBE
where gm is the transconductance

Input Resistance

ΔVin ΔVBE ΔVBE ΔVBE β

rin = = = =β = = rπ
ΔIin ΔIB ΔIC /β VI gm

Ohmic Region

In the active region, ic is not depend on v_ce

in IC layout of an NPN BJT, what is the purpose of the buried channel

To reduce resistance

We only nee 1 battery do we need for biasing a BJT amplifier

What does the coupling capacitor filter

The answer is it filters off the DC voltage

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 33

 What is the formula for the small signal input resistance for a BJT?

rπ = β/gm where g_m is transconductance

⟹ r0 = VA /IC0

DC Biasing & Pi Model

Figure of NPN transistor

we need the pay attention to some of these features in Large Signal Modelling

Collector current

Collector-Emitter Voltage

Base-Emitter Voltage

Some important relationship

Collector Current

VBE
IC = Isat (exp( − 1)
VT
Collector Current and Base Current

IC = βIB
Where β is the forward current gain

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 34

 We should note that IC , collector current is independent of VCE , Collector-Emitter
Current, in Ideal Transsitor, then

Time Varying Signal Circuit

)
VBE VBE
IC = Isat exp( − 1) ≈ Isat exp(
VT VT

Thus,

Vin + V0
IC = Isat exp( )
VT

When ∣Vin ∣ is extremely small

IC = Isat exp( VVT0 )exp( VVinT ) ≈ Isat exp( VVT0 )(1 + Vin
VT
)

= Isat exp( VVT0 ) + exp( )

Isat Vin V0
VT VT

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 35

 Therefore

Isat Vin V0 IC0

IC = IC0 + exp( ) = IC0 + Vin ( ) = IC0 + gm Vin
VT VT VT
Where gm is the transconductance

Therefore, we say that IC is of 2 part which is the IC0 and the amplifier part

With VCC source

NOTE

VCC should be chosen to be VCC /2

IC should be chosen to be VCE /2RC

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 36

 Now if we add resistance Rβ , the circuit is as follow

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 37

 Example1

IB is not correctly calculated (note)

Example 2

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 38

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 39
 We have to use the maximum IC value to calculate RC but when we
⇒
calculating the optimum current IB we must choose the optimum value of
IC = VCC /2RC

Full Circuit Model

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 40

 The full pi model circuit

The introduction of capactor is because capacitor does not allow time varying
voltage

Small Signal Model

In small signal, we only need the derivation

∂IC Isat VBE IC0

= exp( )= = gm
∂VBE VBE VT VT
Here, ∂VBE is the small signal of VBE and ∂IC is the small signal of IC0

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 41

 iC IC0
= gm =
vBE VT
and

ic = βiB

Pi Modeling
We have

vπ ∂VBE vBE
γπ = = =
iB ∂iB iB
Sicne iC = βiB  (or iB = iC /β), therefore

βvBE ∂vBE β
γπ = = β( )=
iC ∂iC gm

Lecture 2b: Large Signal Modeling 42