LECTURES 1&2: TENSION EXPERIMENT OF DUCTILE

AND BRITTLE MATERIALS (STEEL AND CAST IRON)

1.1 Objectives
Understand the relationship between force and deformation of steel and cast iron specimens.
Determine the mechanical characteristics of steel and cast iron.
For Steel, we find:
 Yield stress  y
 Ultimate stress  u
 Relative axial deformation (longitudinal elongation) %
 Necking ratio %
For Cast Iron: Find ultimate stress  u
1.2 Theoretical background
In Chapter 3, the relationship between longitudinal elongation L and the tension force P as shown
in Figure 1 for steel and Figure 2 for cast iron.
P
D P
Pult
E

B C
Pult
Py
Pl A

 
O O L
L

Figure 1 Figure 2
Stress limits Steel Cast Iron
Py
Yield stress y 
Ao
P Pu
Ultimate stress u  u u 
Ao Ao
The plasticity characteristics are defined as follows:
L1  Lo
 Relative elongation (%)  100%
Lo
Ao  A1
 Necking ratio (%)  100%
Ao

In which, L1 is the length at failure;

Lo is the original length;

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 A1 is the cross-sectional area at failure;
Ao is the original cross-sectional area.
1.3 Test specimen
Based on TCVN 197-85 (197-2000), the test sample is shown in the Figure 3. The cross section of
samples can be circle or rectangle as shown in Figure 4.

R
A

A
A-A
Lo

bo
L do ao

Figure 3.
Figure 4.

For circular cross-sectional samples:

+ The length Lo=10do or 5do.
+ The length L= Lo + do.
+ do is the diameter of the cross section.
For rectangular cross-sectional samples:
+ The cross sectional area Ao  ao  bo

+ The length Lo  11.3 Ao for long sample;

Lo  5.65 Ao for short sample;

Lo  4 Ao for brittle sample;

+ The length L= Lo + bo/2.

The radius R and the head size of specimen depend on the testing machine.

1.4 Experimental tools

- A caliper with precision 1/50mm.
- A technical scale with precision 0.01g.
- A marking tool to mark spacing on the sample.
- Tension testing machine M.A.N.

1.5 Preparing for the experiment

- Measure the diameter do, Lo for rectangular samples or ao and bo for circular samples.
- Marking N equal 1-cm intervals on the length Lo of specimens. These marks are then used to
determine the length L1 at failure.

2
- Predict the materials’ stress limits and tensile strength of the specimen to determine the
appropriate load levels.
- Select the tensioning clamp and load level of the machine appropriately to the specimen.
- Place the specimen in the tensioning clamp, control the force and pen on the plotter.
1.6 Experiment procedure
Slowly increase the tension force, monitor the force meter and the plotter, and read the yield force
Py (where the force does not increase but the deformation increases), and the ultimate force Pu
(maximum force when the specimen is failed) based on the force-deformation graph.
When the specimen is failed, release the force and take the specimen.
1.7 Calculation
1.7.1 For steel
Py Pu
 Calculation Ao, yield stress  y  and ultimate stress u  .
Ao Ao
 Joining the two parts of the failed specimen, draw the specimen after joining, determine the
length L1 of the specimen at failure.

The length L1 depends on the failure position:

o Set N be the equal intervals on the initial length Lo.
o Measure the length x from the nearer end.
1 2
o If Lo  x  Lo , the failure point is considered in the middle of specimen and L1 is
3 3
the length between the two end marks.
1
o If x  Lo , the failure point is not considered in the middle of specimen and L1 is
3
determined as follows:
 Determine the mark B which is symmetry of A with respected to the failure
point.
n is the intervals of AB
N n
If n is even: L1  AB  2 BC , in which, BC  is the intervals
2
N  n 1
If n is odd: L1  AB  2 BC  CC ' , in which, BC  is the intervals and
2
CC’ is an additional interval.
L1  Lo
Relative elongation (%):  100%
Lo
 Measure the diameter d1 at the failure point. Calculate the area A1 and calculate the necking
ratio:

3
 Ao  A1
 100%
Ao
 Draw the force-deformation diagrams and failure modes.

1.7.2 For cast iron

Pu
Calculate the ultimate stress:  u 
Ao
Draw the force-deformation diagrams and failure modes
1.8 Comments on the results
- Compare the P - L diagrams obtained from theory and experiment. Specify the mechanical
properties of steel and cast iron materials (ductile and brittle materials). Explain the failure type of
materials.

Figure 5. Testing specimens.

Figure 6. Failure modes of tested specimens.

4
Figure 7. Testing machine.

5
 LECTURES 3&4: COMPRESSION OF DUCTILE AND
BRITTLE MATERIALS (STEEL AND CAST IRON)
2.1 Objectives
Find yield compression stress for steel and ultimate compression stress for cast iron.
1.2 Theoretical background
In Chapter 3, the relationship between longitudinal elongation L and the tension force P as shown
in the Figure 8.
P

Py
Pl


O L
Figure 8.
Py
Yield stress:  y 
Ao
2.3 Test specimen
Cylinder specimen with the height h, the depth do and
h

h do
1 3 is shown in Figure 9.
do

.2.4 Experimental tools

A caliper with precision 1/50mm
2.5 Preparing for the experiment
- Measured do and h
- Calculate Ao, the predicted largest force for determining the load level of the machine.
- Place the specimen between the two compressing plates to be ready for axial compression.
- Adjust the number 0 (if required), control the diagram plotter.
2.6 Experiment procedure
- Turn on the machine to increase the force slowly.
- Observe the force-deformation diagram and read force Py in the yield stage, continue to increase
the force to 70-80% of the load level and then stop.
- Release the force and take the specimen.
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 2.7 Calculation
Py
Yield stress:  y 
Ao
Draw the force-deformation diagram.
Draw the failure modes of specimens.
2.8 Comments on the results
- Evaluate the quality of materials by comparing the results of the steel tension and compression
tests.
- Explain the failure modes of specimens.

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 LECTURE 5: ELASTIC MODULUS E WHEN PULLED OR
COMPRESSED
3.1 Objectives
Determine the elastic modulus E when pulled or compressed steel specimens and check the Hooke's
law.
3.2 Theoretical background
In the elastic stage of axial loading, materials follow Hooke's law and we have:
P
 Ao PLo
E  
 L Ao L
Lo
Where:
P: tension (or compression) force;
Lo is initial (original) length.
L is elongation of the length Lo when subjected to force P.
Ao is cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Because L is small, so it is determined using an optic strain gauge.
Measure strain using optic strain gauges:
 An optic strain gauge is a magnifying tool which is used to measure small deformation. The
gauge system consists of an absolutely rigid metal rod represented for a standard level (1), one
end is pointed, other end has V-groove (see figure); The rhombus knife (3) is attached to the
rigid metal rod with reflective mirror. A linear ruler of the order of magnitude to mm (5) is
attached to the tripod system, and this tripod has a system of lens (6), the system of lens can be
adjusted to clearly see the image of the ruler refecting via the mirror.

8
 Figure 10. System of optic strain gauge.

Using the optic strain gauge to indirectly find the deformation L corresponding to the initial Lo of
the specimen under the effect of the force P with two strain gauge on the sides of the specimen
under zero force (or force Po), the mirror is in the initial position, looking through the lens we read
the reading A0 on the ruler A, and B0 on the ruler B; Applying the P force to the specimen (at
which the force acting is P1 = P0 + P), the Lo specimen elongates an amount L, the rhombus end
contacting to the specimen also move accordingly; consequently, the mirror is rotated an angle α
and the reflecting light rotates an angle 2α so we read the number A1 on the ruler A and B1 on the
ruler B ....
Set the distance A0A1 = A1, the distance from the mirror to the ruler is L, the diagonal of the
rhombus knife is a as shown, since α is a small angle, we have:
L
  tan   ;
a L A1 a
Thus: 2  L  A1
A a LB 2 LB
2  tan 2  1 ;
LB

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We see that the readings A1 and B1 on the A and B scale corresponding to the elongation LTB of
the specimen times the magnification factor m.
m = 2L / a (e.g. mB corresponds to LB ...) with a = 4.5mm
So from a small deformation L on the specimen, we used the amplifier to read a large value L
through the magnification factor m
For example: with a = 4.5mm, LB = 2250mm the magnification factor is:
m  2x2250 /4.51000 times
We can change m by changing LB; The larger LB is, the larger the magnification factor is, but when
the distance between the LB is large, the lens system is far away from the ruler, thus the reading will
not be clear.
3.3 Test specimen
Similar to the specimen subjected to axial loading, the cross section can be rounded or rectangular.
The length of the specimen depends on the gauge length which is 100 or 200mm. The specimen end
depends on the clamp.
3.4 Experimental tools
A caliper with precision 1/50mm
Steel ruler
A pairs of optic strain gauges A and B with the magnification factors mA and mB.
3.5 Preparing for the experiment
Measure the dimension of the cross section, calculate Ao and predict the yield force in order to set
the force level for the machine.
Place the specimen into the machine clamps, install strain gauge and adjust to clearly see the ruler.
Measure the distances LA and LB from the mirror to the rulers of the two strain gauges.
Establish the result Table:

No. Load Readings (cm)

Force Increment A B

P(kG, N) P Reading Increment Reading Increment

P0 Ao Bo
1 P1 P=P1 -Po A1 A1= A1 -Ao B1 B1= B1 -Bo

2 P2 P=P2-P1 A2 AB2………………… B2 B2…………………….

. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
n Pn P=Pn-Pn-1 An An= An –An-1 Bn Bn= Bn –Bn-1

Ai Bi

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3.6. Experiment procedure
Increase the force from zero to the initial force P0 =100 kG (1000N) or 200kG(2000N) in order to
set tup the initial state of the experiment.
Increase the force each equal amount P, record the readings ion the two strain gauges.
3.7 Calculation
Calculate the average increment of the readings on the left and the right:

Aave 
 A , Bave 
 B and the magnification factors:
n n
2 LA 2 LB
mA  , mB 
a a
1  A B 
Calculate the average elongation: Lave   ave  ave 
2  mA mB 
P.Lo
Calculate the elastic modulus: E 
Lave . Ao
Draw the graph representing the relationship between Pi and the reading Ai and Bi.
3.8. Comments on the results
- Comment on the increment Ai=Ai-Ai-1, Bi=Bi-Bi-1 are constants according to P? If they are
not constant, find out the reason why? is the Hooke's law correct or not?
- Comment on the diagrams (P, Ai) and (P, Bi)
- Compare the experimental results with the theoretical elastic modulus of the material (assuming
that the steel has E = 200,000N/mm2), calculate the error in percentage.

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Figure 11. Ruler, lens, mirror and rigid bar.

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 LECTURE 6: ELASTIC MODULUS G WHEN TWISTED
4.1. Objectives
Determine the elastic modulus G of steel when twisted and check the Hooke's law.
4.2. Theoretical background
When a circular cross-sectional member is subjected to a torsion moment, the relative torsional
angle (angle of twist) between the two cross sections A and B with a distance LAB is:
M z .LAB M z .LAB
 AB  thus G
G.I   AB .I 
In which, Mz is torsion moment (constant on AB)
I  is polar inertia moment of the cross section.

4.3. Test specimen

The test specimen (1) is a circular cross sectional bar that is firmly clamped (fixed), the other end is
inserted into the ball bearing (2) which can be freely rotated, horizontal bar (3) at the free end is
used to hang the weights in order to create the Mz torque. Between the fixed end and the ball
bearing, two horizontal bars (4) are at A and B, at the end of each horizontal bar, place a
displacement meter (see Figure).

The bar is in pure torsion when a weight is placed. The absolute angles of twist at A and B are A,
and B, respectively. Thus, the two horizontal bars (4) rotate and their free ends have displacements
A and B, which are measured by the displacement meters.
A B
 A  tan  A   B  tan  B   AB   B   A
a a
4.4. Experimental tools
A caliper with precision 1/50mm
- Suspension parts and weights
- Two displacement meters with precision 0.01mm.

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4.5. Preparing for the experiment
Measure the diameter of the cross section of the bar and calculate the polar inertia moment
 R4  D4
I    0,1D 4
2 32
- Measure the distance b to calculate the maximum load (weight) to the system.
- Measure the distance LAB and a.
- Attach the weight hanger to the system.
- Set the displacement meters on the horizontal bars.
- Make a record of results as follows:

No. Load Reading (x 10 -2mm)

Force Increment A B
P(kG,N) P Reading Increment Reading Increment
P0 Ao Bo
1 P1 P=P1 -Po A1 A1= A1 -Ao B1 B1= B1 -Bo
B2……………………
2 P2 P=P2-P1 A2 A2…………………. B2 ….
B3……………………
3 P3 P=P3-P2 A3 A3…………………. B3 ….
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
n Pn P=Pn-Pn-1 An An= An –An-1 Bn Bn= Bn –Bn-1
Ai Bi

4.6. Experiment procedure

- Consider the weight of the hanger and the horizontal bar (3) as the initial load P 0, read A0, B0 on
the two displacement meters (adjust the meters to 0).
- Put a 1kG weight on the hanger (thus P1 = P0 + P = P0 + 1kG) read the numbers A1 and B1,
respectively.
- Place another 1kG weight on the hanger and read the corresponding numbers on the two
displacement meters, and so on.
4.7. Calculation
- Calculate the torsion moment (torque): M z  P.b
- Calculate the average of the two reading numbers on displacement meters:
Ai Bi
Aave  ; Bave 
n n
Aave B
- Calculate the average angle of twist at A and B:  A,ave  ;  B ,ave  ave
a a
- Calculate the average relative angle of twist between A and B: ave   A,ave   B ,ave

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 M z .LAB
- Calculate the elastic modulus G when twisted: G 
ave .I 
- Plot the relationship between P and the numbers Ai and then Bi.
4.8. Comments on the results
- Comment on the linearity of the readings on the displacement (Hooke's law test).
- Compare the G result found in the experiment with G calculated by the formula:
E
Gtheory  or Gtheory= 8100kg/mm2.
2(1   )
- For E, μ obtained from the experiment we can calculate Gtheory. (E = 200.000N / mm2,  = 0.3)
- Calculate the difference.
- Comments on the accuracy of the measurement, equipment and calculation methods.

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 LECTURE 7: DISPLACEMENT AND ROTATION OF
CANTILIVER BEAMS SUBJECTED TO ASYMMETRIC
BENDING
5.1. Objectives
Measure the displacement (deflection) and the angle of twist (at a number of cross sections) of a
rectangular beam under asymmetric bending. Compare the measured results with the value
calculated according to the formula in order to check the formula.
5.2. Theoretical background
A cantilever beams with the stiffness EIx is subjected to the force P as shown
The displacements at B, C and D are:
PL3C PL3C PL3C PL2C
yC  ; yD   3LD  LC  ; yD   3LC  LB  ;C 
3EI x 6 EI x 6 EI x 2 EI x
It is possible to use displacement meters to directly measure the displacements at points B, C and D
on beams, and then compare with the displacement calculated using the theoretical formula above.
In addition, the beam's elastic line in the CD segment is the first order, so it is possible to calculate
the angle of twist at C based on the displacements:
yD  yC
C 
LD  LC

D C B A

yC
yD yB LB

5.3. Test specimen

The specimen is a rectangular cross sectional beams (or any shape) beams as shown below:

16
5.4. Experimental tools
A caliper with precision 1/50mm
Steel ruler
Electronic displacement meters (mm)
Weights
5.5. Preparing for the experiment
- Measure the dimensions b and h of the specimen cross section and distance LB, LC, LD.
- Install the displacement meters at positions B, C, D.
- Place the weight to create the force at C.
- Record of the results:
Load Reading (mm)
p ∆p at B at C at D
No
kG kG Reading Increment Reading Increment Reading Increment
(N) (N)
1 P1 B1 C1 D1
2 P2 P2-P1 B2 B= C2 C= D2 D=
B3-B2 C3-C2 D3-D2
3 P3 P3-P2 B3 … C3 … D3 ….
4 P4 … … … … … … …
… … … … … …. … … …
n Pn B C D

5.6. Experiment procedure

- Consider the weight of the hanger is P0, adjust the displacement meter to 0.
- Place the weights to create the force P1, P2, P3, ... with the constant loading increment of ΔP.
- Control the number of readings by the linearity between force and displacement.
5.7. Calculation
- Calculate the displacements at B, C and D according to the formula given above.
- Calculate the average readings of the measured displacements recorded in the result table.

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Dave 
 D ; B 
 B ; C 
 C
ave ave
n n n
Thus, the displacements corresponding to the constant increment ΔP are
yD = ∆Dave , yC = ∆Cave, yB = ∆Bave.
yD  yC
- Calculate the angle of twist based on theory and experiment: C 
LD  LC
- Draw graph showed the relationship between the force and displacements at B, C and D.
- Compare the theoretical and experimental results:
Angle of twist
Displacement at B Displacement at C Displacement at D at C Note
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Theory
Experiment
Error (%)

5.8. Comments on the results

Comment on the linearity of the readings at B, C, D.
Find the reasons of errors.

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 LECTURE 8: DISPLACEMENT OF CANTILIVER BEAMS
SUBJECTED TO COMBINED BENDING MOMENTS
6.1. Objectives
Determine the direction and total displacement f of cantilever beams (console beams) subjected to
combined bending moments.
Compare with the theoretical results.
6.2. Theoretical background
A cantilever beam are subjected to a force P, the angle between the force P and the symmetry axis y
is , the displacement at the free end of the beam consists of:
Py l 3 P cos .l 3 Pcosl 3
 The displacement in y direction: f y   
3EI x 3EI x 3EI x

Pxl 3 P sin .l 3 P sin .l 3

 The displacement in x direction: f x   
3EI y 3EI y 3EI y

bh3 hb3
In which, l is the distance from the load P to the fixed end; I x  ; Iy 
12 12

The total displacement of the center O: f  f x2  f y2

fx
The angle between the displacement f and the symmetry axis y is : tan  
fy

The displacements f x and f y can be measured by using displacement meters. Then, the total
displacement f and the angle  are determined.
6.3. Test specimen
The steel cross-section bxh and suspension system are arranged as shown in the following figure:

Displacement meters

Fixed end
Weight hanger
6.4. Experimental tools
Specimen
A caliper with precision 1/50mm
A plumb line
A protractor
6.5. Preparing for the experiment
+ Measure b, h and l.

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+ Predict the load limit, determine the load increment P.
+ Place the specimen, measure the angle , place the displacement meters and the weight hanger.
+ Record the results:

No. Load Reading (10-2mm)

P P X axis Y axis
(kG,N) (kG,N) x x y y
P0 x0 y0
1 P1 x1 x1 – x0 y1 y1 – y0
2 P2 P2 - P1 x2 x2 – x1 y2 y2 – y1

n Pn Pn - Pn-1 Pn xn – xn-1 yn – yn-1

x y

6.6. Experiment procedure

- Consider the hanger weight and bar weight as the initial load P0, read the numbers on two
displacement meters x0, y0.
- Place the 1kG weights (i.e. add P = 1kG) to create the load P1, P2. Record the displacements x1,
y1, x2, y2 corresponding to each load.
- The increment of the displacement should be a constant. If not, it is necessary to review the layout
of the experiment and redo

6.7. Calculation

- Calculate f x ,ave 
 x ; f y ,ave 
 y .
n n
- Calculate Ix and Iy.
fx
- Calculate f  f x2  f y2 and tan   ==> .
fy
- Draw graph representing the relationship between the load P and fx, fy.
- Calculate the fx, fy based on theory.
6.8. Comments on the results
- Comment on the linearity of the displacement fx, fy and P.
- Calculate the difference between the theory and experiment.
- Evaluate the accuracy of the experiment
- Find out the cause of the error.

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 LECTURE 9: CRITICAL AXIAL FORCE
7.1. Objectives
Determine the critical axial force of a bar and compare the experimental value with the theoretical
value.
7.2. Theoretical background
The critical axial force of a bar is determined by Euler's formula as follows

- Two pin connections μ = 1 (case 1)

- One pin and one fix μ = 0.7 (case 2).
- Two fixed ends μ = 0.5 (case 3)
- One fixed end and one free end μ = 2 (case 4)
Thus, determine the critical force by direct method as follows:
We need to gradually increase the value of the compression force P and note the force value when
the bar is bent without returning to the original form and the theory has shown that the force P is the
critical force.
7.3. Test specimen
The pattern is a straight line, having a rectangular section bxh, length L, connected at two ends
corresponding to four cases in the left-to-right order with the experimental model as shown below.

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7.4. Experimental tools
A caliper with precision 1/50mm
Weights
The device consists of a steel frame (1) containing four steel bars (2). The grid board (3) is
interlaced to clarify the instability of the steel bars. The connections allow illustrating all types of
instability Euler. While the lower connections (4) are fixed permanently to the frame, the upper
connections (5) can move vertically (and horizontally in the second case) and have a plate (6) to
place the weights. The steel bars are fixed with vis (M5) at the connections.
Steel bars (2) are made of spring steel of cross section b x h and the length L with elastic modulus
E.
The load is applied using a set of 5N and 1N scales.

7.5. Preparing for the experiment

Measure the cross-sectional dimension bxh and the length L of the sample, calculating the critical
Euler force according to theoretical formula to determine the maximum load for four cases.
Check that the sample is properly positioned and upright.

  EI min =  x2.10000x0.125  8N
2 2
Case 1: P
(L)2
th
(1x180)2

P   EI min =  x2.10000x0.125  16,3N

2 2
Case 2:
(L)2
th
(0,7x180)2

P   EI min =  x2.10000x0.125  32N

2 2
Case 3:
(L)2
th
(0,5x180)2

P   EI min =  x2.10000x0.125  2N
2 2
Case 4:
(L)2
th
(2x180)2

22
7.6. Experiment procedure

- Place the weights from the P1, P2,..., P4 values and monitor until it becomes unstable.
- Record the destabilized bar value and redraw the instability profile for the four cases.
- Carefully slowly place the weights.
- Record the results in the table.

Pcr (theory) Pcr (experiment) Error % Note

(N) (N)

Figure 7.2. Different shapes of instability associated with different connections

7.7. Results
a) Record the experimental results for 4 cases.
b) Calculate the error between the experimental and theoretical results.
c) Draw the shapes of instability in four cases.
7.8. Comments on the results
Evaluate the experiment and comment on the causes of the error.

23