Mechanics of Composite Structures and

Materials
AET 4203

CLO 3.1: Generalized Hook’s

Law for Isotropic Materials and
the Transformation of
Coordinates
Higher Colleges of Technology
Fall 2019

Dr. Hassan Jishi

Aeronautical Engineering Department
Introduction: Micromechanics
 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials

Normal Stress-Strain Diagram

Material Properties

Stiffness: E = Modulus of Elasticity

= Young’s Modulus

Hooke’s Law (valid for linear elasticregion):

 =E
 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials

Hooke’s Law
(Normal Stress-Strain; Uniaxial Loading)

 =E

Can be extended for use in more engineering applications for situations involving biaxial and triaxial loading
Recall Hooke’s Law assumed elasticbehavior
Let’s add another common assumption that the material is isotropic
Isotropic is defined as having the same material properties in all directions

Young’s modulus, E , such that

And Poisson’s Ratio,  , such that

Isotropic material examples Anisotropic material examples

Rubber Carbon fiber
Steel
Wood
Most metals
 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials
Recall Poisson’s Ratio
 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials

Consider Biaxial Principal Stresses

 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials
Consider Biaxial Principal Stresses

Combine
 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials
Consider Biaxial Principal Stresses

Generalized Hooke’s Law for Biaxial Stress-Strain for Isotropic Materials

 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials

Generalized Hooke’s Law for Biaxial Stress-Strain for Isotropic Materials

This development can be extended to triaxial states of stress.

 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials

Generalized Hooke’s Law for Biaxial Stress-Strain for Isotropic Materials

1
1

This development can be extended to triaxial states of stress.

Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials
Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials
 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials

Generalized Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress-Strain for Isotropic Materials

The stiffness matrix:

This development can be extended to 3-D states of stress.

 Generalized Hook’s Law Isotropic Materials

Hooke's law for isotropic materials in Stiffness form is given by:

Note: 𝜸𝒙𝒚 = 𝟐𝜺𝒙𝒚 ; 𝜸𝒛𝒙 = 𝟐𝜺𝒛𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜸𝒚𝒛 = 𝟐𝜺𝒚𝒛

 Coordinate Transformation
Stresses on Inclined Planes for Plane Stress in general
 Coordinate Transformation
Stresses on Inclined Planes for Plane Stress in general
Coordinate Transformation
 Coordinate Transformation - Worksheet:

The stresses on the horizontal and vertical planes at a point are shown in the figure below.
The normal stress on a plane A-A at this point is found to be 80 MPa in tension.

Find:
a) The magnitude and direction of the shear stresses,
b) The magnitude and direction of the shear stress on the inclined plane A-A
Coordinate Transformation - Worksheet:
 Coordinate Transformation - Worksheet:

Determine the normal stress and shear stress acting on the inclined plane AB. Solve the problem
using the stress transformation equations. Show the result on the sectioned element.
 Coordinate Transformation - Worksheet:
Determine the normal stress and shear stress acting on the inclined plane AB. Solve the problem
using the stress transformation equations. Show the result on the sectioned element.

Note: If θ = - 45 is used, you will

arrive at the same results
22
Mechanics of Composite
Structures and Materials
AET 4203

CLO-3.2:
Classical
Laminate Theory
Dr. Hassan Jishi
Aeronautical
Engineering Department

Higher Colleges of Technology

Fall 2019
 Classical Laminate Theory
CLT allows engineer’s to predict the mechanical
response of laminates based on complex stacking
sequences:
e.g (0°,90°,+/-45°)s

It can be used to predict the elastic properties of

composites and can be used in predicting failure in
composites.
 Definition of Material Types
• Isotropic materials e.g. Glass and metals
An isotropic body has material properties that are the same in every
direction at a point in the body, i.e. the properties are not a function
of orientation at a point in the body.

• Orthotropic materials e.g. Continuous aligned composite materials

An orthotropic body has material properties that are different in three
mutually perpendicular directions at a point in the body and have
three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry.

• Anisotropic materials
An anisotropic body has material properties that are different in all
directions at a point in the body.
 Definition of Poisson’s ratio
• For elastic deformation, the Poisson’s ratio is the
negative ratio of lateral strain (in the y-direction)
and axial strain (in the x-direction) that result from
a uniaxial stress in the x-direction. For an isotropic
material.
−e𝑦
n=
e𝒙

n = ‘Nu’ x
• For an orthotropic material, there is more than one
Poisson’s ratio. In the 1,2 plane of the composite, there
are in fact two Poisson’s ratios,
the major Poisson’s ratio n12 = -e2/e1
and
the minor Poisson’s ratio n21 = -e1/e2
The reason for this is that the unidirectional ply has
fibres running in only one direction. This results in two
different Poisson’s ratios.
• This is a very important fact and needs to be
accounted for in composite design.

• The two Poisson’s ratios are related to each other

through the Young’s modulus in the fibre direction,
E1, and the Young’s modulus in the transverse
direction, E2.
n12 n21
=
𝐸1 𝐸2
• The major Poisson’s ratio is always larger than the
minor Poisson’s ratio (roughly by an order of
magnitude).
 Micromechanics reminder

The major Poisson’s ratio can be predicted from

the Poisson’s ratio of the fibers and matrix using
a rule of mixture approach.

n12 = nmVm+nfVf

And the minor Poisson’s ratio can be calculated

n12 n21
using: =
𝐸1 𝐸2
 Assumptions in CLT
1. The displacement everywhere in the laminate are continuous. The
entire laminate deforms as a single part. (CLT is invalid for laminates
that have delamination's or flaws)
2. Plies are perfectly bonded to each other, bond lines are
infinitesimally thin, and there is no shear deformation between
plies. (This indicates that CLT cannot be used to predict
delamination.)
3. The laminate is thin compared to the length and width dimensions.
4. Laminate does not change thickness during deformation.
5. Displacement are small relative to the thickness of the laminate.
6. Ply materials have linear elastic orthotropic material behavior.
7. Plies are subject to a state of plane stress.
8. Strain caries linearly through laminate depth.
9. Stresses and strains are calculated in the middle of the ply.
Stress-strain Relations for Conditions of Plane Stress
in an Orthotropic Material
• For a ply in the 1-2 plane, a plane stress state is
defined by setting s3= 0, t23 = 0 and t31 = 0 (where t
refers to a shear stress).

1
Stress-strain Relations for Conditions of Plane Stress
in an Orthotropic Material
• The strain-stress relations can then be written as:

where:
• This [S] matrix is called the reduced
compliance matrix.

• Note that only four independent materials

properties are required to obtain this matrix,
these being E1, E2, G12 and n12.
• This equation can be inverted to give stress-strain
relations and the reduced stiffness matrix [Q]:

• Where the Qij, terms are given as:

Reduced compliance matrix Reduced stiffness matrix

These equations form the basis for the stress and strain
analysis of an individual ply subjected to forces in its
own plane.

This simple analysis requires that the fiber direction and

the principle direction (1) are the same!
Mechanics of Composite Structures
and Materials
AET 4203

CLO 1.1:
Introduction to Composite
Materials for Aerospace
Applications
Higher Colleges of Technology
Fall 2019

Dr. Hassan Jishi

Aeronautical Engineering Department
 Introduction

• Composite materials are used more and more for primary structures in
commercial, industrial, aerospace, marine, and recreational structures.
 Composites (General)

• Composite materials: Two or more materials (with unique properties)

combined together on a macroscopic (large) scale to form a new “composite”
material with better properties.

• Generally consist of the combination of the

three basic types of materials (Metals,
Ceramics and Polymers).

• The combination of materials can produce

properties which are superior than the properties
of individual components (combined materials).
 Composites (General)

• Example: Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics (GFRP); Glass Fibers provide strength
and Polymer provides flexibility, combining the best properties of both materials.
Composites (General)
 Composites (General)

• Composites are not recent innovations.

• Throughout history, humans have used composite type materials.

• One of the earliest uses of composite material was by the ancient Mesopotamians
around 3400 B.C., when they glued wood strips at different angles to create plywood.

Plywood is a sheet material manufactured

from thin layers or "plies" of wood veneer
 Composites (General)

• Composites are not recent innovations.

• Archeologists have found that natural composite building materials were in used in
Egypt and Mesopotamia, since ancient builders and artisans used straw to reinforce
mud bricks, pottery, and boats around 1500 BC.

Composite bricks made from

straw and mud
 Composites (General)

• Composites are not recent innovations.

• In about 1200 AD, the Mongols invented the first composite bows made from a
combination of wood, bamboo, bone, cattle tendons, horns, bamboo and silk bonded with
natural pine resin.

• The bows were small, very powerful, and extremely accurate.

Master Heon Kim using a modern

Korean composite bow.
 Composites (General)

• The 1930’s were perhaps the most important decade for the composites industry.

• In 1935, Owens Corning launched the fiber reinforce polymer (FRP) industry by
introducing the first glass fiber.

• In 1936, unsaturated polyester resins were patented. Because of their curing properties, they
would become the dominant choice for resins in manufacturing today.

Glass fiber fabric

Unsaturated
Polyester Resin
 Composites (General)

• In the 1940’s World War II brought the FRP industry from research into actual production.

• In addition to high strength to weight properties, fiberglass composites were found to be

transparent to radio frequencies and were adopted for radar domes and used with other
electronic equipment.

Radome

Composite
radome
 Composites (General)

• By 1947 a fully composite body automobile had been made and tested.

• This car was reasonably successful and led to the development of the 1953 Corvette, which
was made using fiberglass preforms impregnated with resin and molded in matched metal
dies.

1953 Corvette
Fiberglass
Preform
 Composites (General)

• In early 1950’s, manufacturing methods such included pultrusion, vacuum bag molding, and
large-scale filament winding were developed.

Pultruded fiberglass Filament wining

 Composites (General)

• In 1961, first carbon fiber was patented, but it was several years before carbon fiber
composites were commercially available.

• Carbon fibers improved thermoset part stiffness to weight ratios, thereby opening even more
applications in aerospace, automotive, sporting goods, and consumer goods.

• The marine market was the largest consumer of composite materials in the 1960’s.

Carbon fiber
 Composites (General)
• 1970’s and 1980’s:

• Breakthroughs in aerospace components, structural and personal armor, sporting equipment,

medical devices, and many other applications.

• New and improved resins continued to expand composites market, especially into higher
temperature ranges and corrosive applications.

• In the 1970’s, the automotive market surpassed marine as the number one market – a position
it retains today.
 Composites (General)
• 1990’s and 2000’s:

• By the mid 1990’s, composites hit mainstream manufacturing and construction.

• As a cost effective replacement to traditional materials like metal, Designers and Engineers
began specifying thermoset composites for various components within the Appliance,
Construction, Electrical and Transportation industries.
 Composites (General)

• In the mid-2000s, the development of the 787 Dreamliner validated composites for high-
strength and rigid applications.

Fiber-reinforced composites may achieve weight savings of 30-40 percent over

aluminum or titanium.
Composites (General)
 Composites (General)

• The Future

• Composites research is attracting grants from governments, manufacturers and universities.

• These investments will find new fibers and resins to create even more applications for
composites.

• Environmentally friendly resins are developed to meet the demand for stronger, lighter and
environmentally friendly products.
 Composites (General)

• Natural Composites

• The bone in your body is also a composite.

• It is made from a hard but brittle material called hydroxyapatite (which is mainly calcium
phosphate) and a soft and flexible material called collagen (which is a protein).
 Composites (General)

• Structural Composite: a material system consisting of two or more phases on a

macroscopic scale.

• Mechanical performance and properties are designed to be superior to those of the

constituent materials acting independently.
 Composites (General)

• Constituents Materials for Composites:

Reinforcement: the strengthening agent which can be in the form of Fibers or

Particles.

Matrix: the main body which can be polymer, metal or ceramic.

 Composites (General)

Microscopic image showing the Microscopic image of a glass

constituent materials for the composite fiber/epoxy composite material.
 Composites (General)

• Allow the stiffness and strength of the material to change with direction of loading
 The Hierarchy for Advanced Structural Materials

1. Begin as laboratory curiosity

2. Applications to expensive structures (often Military Aerospace)

3. Applications to stuff rich people buy

4. Applications to things everyone can afford

Key Assumption: Raw materials are ultimately inexpensive and

materials synthesis is ultimately inexpensive
 Case History- Aluminium

• At one time, more rare than gold and silver

 Kings and Queens wanted aluminum plates

• Very Expensive Applications

 Art Deco furnishings in the 1920s and 1930s
 Military aircraft during WW II

• Stuff that rich people buy (Post WW II through 1960s)

 General Aviation
 Boats
 Bicycle

• Today
 Aluminum BBQ grills at Carefour
 Aluminum shower curtain rods at hardware store
 Properties of Composites

1. High Strength to Weight Ratio.

2. High Stiffness to Weight Ratio.
3. Corrosion Resistance.
4. High operating temperatures than polymers.
5. High toughness.
Properties of Composites
 Properties of Composites

• Corrosion Resistance.

Advanced composites do not corrode like metals:

The combination of corrosion and fatigue cracking is a significant problem for aluminum
commercial fuselage structure.
 Properties of Composites

• Fatigue Performance of Composites Exceeds That of Metals

 Properties of Composites

• Damage tolerance refers to the capability of a damaged composite laminate or structure to

maintain its original strength and stiffness.

• Composites are Damage Tolerant

Composite Vertical Stabilizer and

Rudder Damage
 Properties of Composites
• Limitations of composite materials:

1. High cost
• Carbon Fiber is expensive; about 8X-10X E-glass fibers

2. Much more sensitive to fiber mis-alignment

from manufacturing process
 Classification of Composites

1. Natural:
• Wood. (Consist of cellulose and lignin).
• Natural Bones.

2. Synthetic:
• Traditional/Old Examples: Brick of Mud and Straw.
• Fiber Glass/GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers).
• CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers).
• Kevlar Composites.
• MMCs (Metal Matrix Reinforced Composites).
• Cer-mets (Combination of ceramics and metals.)
 Applications of Composites

1. Aerospace: Air and spacecraft parts

2. Transport: Automotive body panels and boat hulls
3. Sports: Fishing Poles, tennis rackets handles, and golf clubs
4. Chemical Industry (corrosive environment): Tanks, containers and pipes
5. Medical: Prosthetic devices, light weight mechanical supports and equipment for disabled
6. Ballistic: Bullet proof jackets and helmets.
 Composites

• Constituents Materials for Composites:

• High strength • Good shear properties • High strength

• High stiffness • Low density • High stiffness
• Low density • Good shear properties
• Low density
 Constituents Materials for Composites

• Phases of a composite material:

1. Reinforcement:
discontinuous, stiffer and stronger.

2. Matrix:
continuous, less stiff and weaker.

3. Interphase:
sometimes exists due to chemical interactions or other processing effect.

• The properties of the composite material depend on the properties of the constituents,
their geometry and the distribution of the phases.
Summary—Advantages and Disadvantages
of Composite Materials
 Constituents Materials for Composites

• Class activity:

1. List the various fiber types used in composite materials.

2. List some advantages and disadvantages of each fiber type.
3. List some applications for each fiber type.

4. List the various resin systems used in composite materials.

5. List some advantages and disadvantages of each resin system.
6. List some applications for each resin system.

Submit your results at the end of the session!

38
 Manufacturing Techniques for Composites

The end properties of a composite part are not only determined by the properties of fibre and
matrix, but also depend on the way by which they are processed. There are variety of processing
techniques for fabricating composite parts/structures e.g. resin transfer moulding, autoclave
moulding, pultrusion and filament winding. Brief descriptions of various fabricating processes are
given below.

Wet lay-up/Hand Lay-up

Resins are applied to bare fibres which are typically supplied in the form of woven, knitted,
stitched or bonded fabrics. The resin is usually applied by rollers or brushes that force resin into
the fabrics. Layers are built up by repeatedly placing fibres and applying resin. Laminates are
usually left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.

Main Advantages:
i) Widely used for many years.
ii) Simple principles to teach.
iii) Low cost tooling, if room-temperature cure resins are used.
iv) Wide choice of suppliers and material types.

Main Disadvantages:
i) Resin mixing, laminate resin contents, and laminate quality are very dependent on the skills of
laminators. Low resin content laminates cannot usually be achieved without the incorporation of
excessive quantities of voids.
ii) Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties due to the need for high diluent/styrene levels.

Vacuum Bagging

This is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process described above where pressure is applied
to the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation. This is achieved by sealing a
plastic bagging film over the wet laid-up laminate and onto the tool. The air under the bag is
extracted by a vacuum pump and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to the
laminate to consolidate it. Excess resin passes through a peel ply and a perforated release film and
is absorbed by the breather fabric.

Main Advantages:
i) Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up
techniques.
ii) Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
iii) Better fibre wet-out due to pressure

Main Disadvantages:
i) The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials
ii) A higher level of skill is required by the operators
iii) Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill

Compression Moulding

Compression moulding was specifically developed for replacing metal components with
composite parts. The compression moulding process can be carried out with either thermosets or
thermoplastics. However, most applications today use thermoset polymers. In fact, compression
moulding is the most common method of processing thermosets. The composites are placed
between two steel platens and heated and cured under pressure. Although many industries use
compression moulding, the automotive industry is the biggest user.
The advantages of compression moulding are short cycle time, high production rate. Excellent
surface finishes result from compression moulding. Disadvantages include high machine costs.
Filament Winding

Filament winding is a continuous fabrication method that can be highly automated and repeatable
with relatively low material costs. A long, cylindrical tool called a mandrel is suspended
horizontally between end supports, while the "head" -- the fibre application instrument -- moves
back and forth along the length of the rotating mandrel, placing the fibres onto the tool in a
predetermined configuration. Computer-controlled filament-winding machines are available.

In most applications, the filament winding apparatus passes the fibre material through a resin
"bath," just before the material touches the mandrel. This is called "wet winding.

After winding, the mandrel and ‘wet’ composite is removed and the ensemble is heated and cured
in an oven or autoclave. After curing, the mandrel may remain in place as part of the wound
component or it may be removed. One-piece cylindrical or tapered mandrels, usually of simple
shape, are pulled out of the part with mandrel extraction equipment. Some mandrels, particularly
in more complex parts, are made of soluble material that can be washed out of the part. Others are
collapsible or built from several parts that allow it to be disassembled and removed in smaller
pieces.

In thermoplastics winding, the material is prepregged (prepregs are layers of fibre that have
already been preimpregnated with resin), therefore a resin bath is unnecessary. The material is
heated as it is wound onto the mandrel -- a process known as curing "on the fly" or "in situ
consolidation." The heated prepreg is laid down, compacted, consolidated and cooled in a
continuous operation. Thermoplastic prepregs eliminate autoclave curing (cutting costs and size
limitations), reduce raw material costs and can be reprocessed to correct flaws.
Filament winding is traditionally used to produce pressure vessels, pipe, rocket motor casings,
tanks, ducting, golf club shafts and other symmetric parts.
It is a low cost process that gives a very uniform quality.
It has a medium cycle time per part, and produces small to medium series.

Main Advantages:
i) This can be a very fast and therefore economic method of laying material down.
ii) Resin content can be controlled by metering the resin onto each fibre tow through nips or dies.
iii) Structural properties of laminates can be very good since straight fibres can be laid in a
complex pattern to match the applied loads.

Main Disadvantages:
i) The process is limited to convex shaped components.
ii) Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
iii) Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
iv) The external surface of the component is unmoulded, and therefore cosmetically unattractive.

Pultrusion

Pultrusion is a continuous, automated process that is cost-effective for high volume production of
parts with uniform cross-section. Due to uniformity in cross-section good resin dispersion, good
fibre distribution and alignment, excellent composite structural materials can be fabricated by
pultrusion. The process involves pulling of fibres through a bath of resin and then into a
preforming fixture, where the section is partially pre-shaped and any excess resin is removed. It is
then passed through a heated die, which determines the sectional geometry and surface finish of
the final product. Composite sections with high fibre contents can be achieved by pultrusion. The
common pultruded parts are solid rods, hollow tubes, flat sheets and various types of beams
including angles, channels, hat-sectioned and wide-flanged beams. The profiles produced by this
process can compete with traditional metallic profiles made of steel and aluminium for strength
and weight. Pultruded sections are used for fabricating industrial gratings, walk-ways, cable-
trays, hand-rails, chemical plants, off-shore and on-shore operations etc.

Resin Transfer Moulding

This is a low-pressure, closed mould semi-mechanised process. The process enables fabrication
of simple low to high performance articles in varied sizes and profiles. The RTM process has
been successfully used in moulding of complex three - dimensional shapes in one piece. RTM is
mainly used for moulding parts such as car parts, boat hulls etc. In RTM, several layers of dry
woven roving or cloth are placed in the bottom half of a two-part closed mould and a low-
viscosity catalyzed liquid resin is injected under pressure into the mould cavity, which is
subsequently cured. Instead of using flat reinforcing layers, the starting material in RTM process
can be a ‘preform' that already has the shape of the desired product.
Main Advantages:
i) High fibre volume laminates can be obtained with very low void contents.
ii) Good health/environmental control due to enclosure of resin.
iii) Possible labour reductions.
iv) Both sides of the component have a moulded surface.

Main Disadvantages:
i) Matched tooling is expensive, and heavy in order to withstand pressures.
ii) Generally limited to smaller components.
iii) Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.

Autoclave Moulding

An autoclave can create pressure and heat at the same time.

Layers of pre-impregnated fibres (prepreg) are stacked to give the desired lay-up. The composite
is then vacuum-bagged in a fashion similar to that outlined above. The vacuum-bagged structure
is then placed in the autoclave and subjected to external heat and pressure according to the
manufacturer’s specifications.
The process is very versatile and gives a very uniform quality, as pressure and heat can be
regulated very precisely. A wide range of geometries up to large aircraft structures can be
produced. On the other hand, it is very costly and cure cycles can be very long.

Main Advantages:
i) High fibre contents can be achieved since prepregs are generally used.
ii) High quality, large parts can be produced.

Main Disadvantages:
i) Material costs are higher for preimpregnated materials
ii) Preparation of laminates can be time-consuming and expensive
iii) Tooling needs to be able to withstand the processing temperatures involved.

The lay-up on the tool is similar to that shown in the section on Vacuum Bagging.
Quickstep
The Quickstep Process involves a fluid-filled, balanced pressure, heated floating mould technology for the
curing, partial curing and joining of composite materials.
It works by rapidly applying heat to the laminate which is trapped between a free floating rigid (or semi-
rigid) mould that floats in a Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF) . The mould and laminate are separated from the
circulating HTF by a flexible membrane or bladder. The Quickstep Process uses balanced pressure,
combined with vibration within the HTF and vacuum on the laminate, to remove the air and then compact
and heat the laminate to cure the part.

A flexible membrane beneath the mould is bonded into a pressure chamber creating the lower half of a
'clam-shell' like mould set. A second flexible membrane is bonded to a separate pressure chamber creating
the upper half of the clam-shell. These HTF filled pressure chambers are clamped together during
processing. This permits the laminate to be compressed while the mould is not subject to any distortion or
stress as it is floating in a balanced pressure environment within the fluid.
The use of fluid to control temperature offers several advantages, including:

Up to 25 times the heat transfer rate of gas systems like autoclave and circulating air ovens, resulting in
shorter cycle times
Improved control of part temperature, with fewer hot or cold spots on the mould

The Quickstep Process can use thermoset and certain thermoplastic prepregs to produce superior composite
parts.
Mechanics of Composite Structures and
Materials
AET 4203

CLO 2:
Lamina and Laminate

Higher Colleges of Technology

Fall 2019

Dr. Hassan Jishi

Aeronautical Engineering Department
Introduction: Micromechanics
 Constituents Materials for Composites

• Recall the phases of a composite material:

1. Reinforcement:
discontinuous, stiffer and stronger.

2. Matrix:
continuous, less stiff and weaker.

3. Interphase:
sometimes exists due to chemical interactions or other
processing effect.
 Basic Concepts

Homogeneous Material: Material Properties are the same at every point.

Heterogeneous Material: Properties vary from point to point.

Isotropy : Martial Properties are same in all directions.

Examples of isotropic materials: glass, metals, plastics, resins..

Anisotropy : Material properties at a point vary with direction. A

material without any planes of symmetry is called Anisotropic Material.

Orthotropic Material : A material having three planes of symmetry.

 Basic Concepts

Composite materials are orthotropic materials, that is, materials having three
mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry.

The intersection of these planes defines three mutually perpendicular axes called
the principle material axes.
 Basic Concepts

1. Is the unidirectional composite material homogeneous or heterogeneous?

2. Isotropic or anisotropic?

On a macroscopic scale: homogeneous and

anisotropic because it has similar composition
at different locations (A and B)

On a microscopic scale: heterogeneous

having different properties within volumes a
and b. In these volumes, the material can be
isotropic or anisotropic (a and b).
Classification of Composite Material Systems

orthotropic
composite
 Lamina and Laminate
 A lamina or ply is a plane (or curved) layer of unidirectional fiber (figure a) or woven
fabric (figure b) in a matrix.

 In the case of unidirectional fibers, it is also referred to as unidirectional lamina (UD)

 The lamina is an orthotropic material with principle axes as show:

2 (in-plane transverse)
2 (fill)
3 (normal)

1 (longitudinal) 1 (warp)
 Lamina and Laminate

 A laminate is made up of two or more unidirectional lamina or plies stacked together at various
orientations.

 The laminate ( or plies, or layers) can be of various thicknesses and consist of different materials.
 Lamina and Laminate

 The configuration of the laminate indicating its ply composition is called layup.

 The sequence of the various plies is called the stacking sequence.

 Examples:

Unidirectional ply: [08]

 Laminate lay-ups are often expressed as [αm/βn/θr].

 For example a laminate of 10 layers may have a lay-up [453/04/902/60]

 Lamina and Laminate

• Symmetric laminate --- when the laminate (lay-up) is symmetrical with respect to
its mid-plane.

• For example the laminate [-452/02]s and a 8 layer [45/-45/0/90]s or [±45/0/90]s

• For the laminate shown stacking sequence is:

[0/90/+45/-45]s
 Lamina and Laminate

[90/45/90/0]s [90/∓45/0]s

Symmetric laminate Symmetric laminate

[45/0/-45/90]s [0/90/±45]s
13
 Resin Systems for Composite Materials

Any resin system for use in a composite material will require the following properties:

1. Good mechanical properties

2. Good adhesive properties
3. Good toughness properties
4. Good resistance to environmental degradation

Mechanical Properties of the Resin System

The figure below shows the stress / strain curve for an 'ideal' resin system. The curve for this resin
shows high ultimate strength, high stiffness (indicated by the initial gradient) and a high strain to
failure. This means that the resin is initially stiff but at the same time will not suffer brittle failure.

It should also be noted that when a composite is loaded in tension, for the full mechanical
properties of the fibre component to be achieved, the resin must be a able to deform to at least the
same extent as the fibre. The figure below gives the strain to failure for E-glass, S-glass, aramid
and high-strength grade carbon fibres on their own (i.e. not in a composite form). Here, it can be
seen that, for example, the S-glass fibre, with an elongation to break of 5.3%, will require a resin
with an elongation to break of at least this value to achieve maximum tensile properties.
Adhesive Properties of the Resin System
High adhesion between resin and reinforcement fibres is necessary for any resin system. This will
ensure that the loads are transferred efficiently and will prevent cracking or fibre / resin
debonding when stressed.

Toughness Properties of the Resin System

Toughness is a measure of a material's resistance to crack propagation, but in a composite this can
be hard to measure accurately. However, the stress / strain curve of the resin system on its own
provides some indication of the material's toughness. Generally, the more deformation the resin
will accept before failure, the tougher and more crack-resistant the material will be. Conversely, a
resin system with a low strain to failure will tend to yield a brittle composite, which cracks easily.
It is important to match this property to the elongation of the fibre reinforcement.

Environmental Properties of the Resin System

Good resistance to the environment, water and other aggressive substances, together with an
ability to withstand constant stress cycling, are properties essential to any resin system. These
properties are particularly important for use in a marine environment.

Resin Types

The resins that are used in fibre reinforced composites can also be referred to as 'polymers'. All
polymers exhibit an important common property in that they are composed of long chain-like
molecules consisting of many simple repeating units. Man-made polymers are generally called
'synthetic resins' or simply 'resins'. Polymers can be classified under two types, 'thermoplastic'
and 'thermosetting', according to the effect of heat on their properties.

Thermoplastics, like metals, soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again with
cooling. This process of crossing the softening or melting point on the temperature scale can be
repeated as often as desired without any appreciable effect on the material properties in either
state. Typical thermoplastics include nylon, polypropylene and ABS, and these can be reinforced,
although usually only with short, chopped fibres such as glass.

Thermosetting materials, or 'thermosets', are formed from a chemical reaction in-situ, where the
resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then undergo a non-reversible chemical
reaction to form a hard, infusible product. In some thermosets, such as phenolic resins, volatile
substances are produced as by-products (a 'condensation' reaction). Other thermosetting resins
such as polyester and epoxy cure by mechanisms that do not produce any volatile by products and
thus are much easier to process ('addition' reactions). Once cured, thermosets will not become
liquid again if heated, although above a certain temperature their mechanical properties will
change significantly. This temperature is known as the Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), and
varies widely according to the particular resin system used, its degree of cure and whether it was
mixed correctly. Above the Tg, the molecular structure of the thermoset changes from that of a
rigid polymer to a more flexible polymer. This change is reversible on cooling back below the Tg.
Above the Tg properties such as resin modulus (stiffness) drop sharply, and as a result the
compressive and shear strength of the composite does too. Other properties such as water
resistance and colour stability also reduce markedly above the resin's Tg.
Thermosetting Resins

Polyester Resins

Polyester resins are the most widely used resin systems, particularly in the marine industry. By
far the majority of dinghies, yachts and workboats built in composites make use of this resin
system.

Polyester resins such as these are of the 'unsaturated' type. Unsaturated polyester resin is a
thermoset, capable of being cured from a liquid or solid state when subject to the right conditions.
It is usual to refer to unsaturated polyester resins as 'polyester resins', or simply as 'polyesters'.
There is a whole range of polyesters made from different acids, glycols and monomers, all having
varying properties.

Most polyester resins are viscous, pale coloured liquids consisting of a solution of a polyester in a
monomer which is usually styrene. The addition of styrene in amounts of up to 50% helps to
make the resin easier to handle by reducing its viscosity. The styrene also performs the vital
function of enabling the resin to cure from a liquid to a solid by 'crosslinking' the molecular
chains of the polyester, without the evolution of any by-products. These resins can therefore be
moulded without the use of pressure and are called 'contact' or 'low pressure' resins. Polyester
resins have a limited storage life as they will set or 'gel' on their own over a long period of time.
Often small quantities of inhibitor are added during the resin manufacture to slow this gelling
action.

For use in moulding, a polyester resin requires the addition of several ancillary products. These
products are generally:

Catalyst
Accelerator
Additives: Pigment; Filler; Chemical/fire resistance

A manufacturer may supply the resin in its basic form or with any of the above additives already
included. Resins can be formulated to the moulder's requirements ready simply for the addition of
the catalyst prior to moulding. As has been mentioned, given enough time an unsaturated
polyester resin will set by itself. This rate of polymerisation is too slow for practical purposes and
therefore catalysts and accelerators are used to achieve the polymerisation of the resin within a
practical time period. Catalysts are added to the resin system shortly before use to initiate the
polymerisation reaction. The catalyst does not take part in the chemical reaction but simply
activates the process. An accelerator is added to the catalysed resin to enable the reaction to
proceed at workshop temperature and/or at a greater rate. Since accelerators have little influence
on the resin in the absence of a catalyst they are sometimes added to the resin by the polyester
manufacturer to create a 'pre-accelerated' resin.

Vinylester Resins

Vinylester resins are similar in their molecular structure to polyesters, but differ primarily in the
location of their reactive sites, these being positioned only at the ends of the molecular chains
Vinylester resins tougher and more resilient than polyesters. The vinylester molecule also features
fewer ester groups. These ester groups are susceptible to water degradation by hydrolysis which
means that vinylesters exhibit better resistance to water and many other chemicals than their
polyester counterparts, and are frequently found in applications such as pipelines and chemical
storage tanks.

With the reduced number of ester groups in a vinylester when compared to a polyester, the resin
is less prone to damage by hydrolysis. The material is therefore sometimes used as a barrier or
'skin' coat for a polyester laminate that is to be immersed in water, such as in a boat hull. The
cured molecular structure of the vinylester also means that it tends to be tougher than a polyester,
although to really achieve these properties the resin usually needs to have an elevated temperature
postcure.

Epoxy Resins

The large family of epoxy resins represent some of the highest performance resins of those
available at this time. Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of
mechanical properties and resistance to environmental degradation, which leads to their almost
exclusive use in aircraft components. As a laminating resin their increased adhesive properties
and resistance to water degradation make these resins ideal for use in applications such as boat
building. Here epoxies are widely used as a primary construction material for high-performance
boats or as a secondary application to sheath a hull or replace water-degraded polyester resins and
gel coats.

The term 'epoxy' refers to a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon
atoms that are already bonded in some way. The simplest epoxy is a three-member ring structure
known by the term 'alpha-epoxy' or '1,2-epoxy'. The idealised chemical structure is shown in the
figure below and is the most easily identified characteristic of any more complex epoxy molecule.

Usually identifiable by their characteristic amber or brown colouring, epoxy resins have a number
of useful properties. Both the liquid resin and the curing agents form low viscosity easily
processed systems. Epoxy resins are easily and quickly cured at any temperature from 5°C to
150°C, depending on the choice of curing agent. One of the most advantageous properties of
epoxies is their low shrinkage during cure which minimises internal stresses. High adhesive
strength and high mechanical properties are combined with high electrical insulation and good
chemical resistance. Epoxies find uses as adhesives, casting compounds, sealants, varnishes and
paints, as well as laminating resins for a variety of industrial applications.

Epoxy resins are formed from a long chain molecular structure similar to vinylester with reactive
sites at either end. In the epoxy resin, however, these reactive sites are formed by epoxy groups
instead of ester groups. The absence of ester groups means that the epoxy resin has particularly
good water resistance. The epoxy molecule also contains two ring groups at its centre which are
able to absorb both mechanical and thermal stresses better than linear groups and therefore give
the epoxy resin very good stiffness, toughness and heat resistant properties.
Epoxies differ from polyester resins in that they are cured by a 'hardener' rather than a catalyst.
The hardener, often an amine, is used to cure the epoxy by an 'addition reaction' where both
materials take place in the chemical reaction. This forms a complex three-dimensional molecular
structure.

Other Thermosetting Resin Systems used in Composites

Besides polyesters and epoxies there are a number of other thermosetting resin systems that are
used where their unique properties are required:

Phenolics
Primarily used where high fire-resistance is required, phenolics also retain their properties well at
elevated temperatures. For room-temperature curing materials, corrosive acids are used which
leads to unpleasant handling. The condensation nature of their curing process tends to lead to the
inclusion of many voids and surface defects, and the resins tend to be brittle and do not have high
mechanical properties. Typical costs: £2-4/kg.

Cyanate Esters
Primarily used in the aerospace industry. The material's excellent dielectric properties make it
very suitable for use with low dielectric fibres such as quartz for the manufacture of radomes. The
material also has temperature stability up to around 200°C in wet environments. Typical costs:
£40/kg.

Polyurethanes
High toughness materials, sometimes hybridised with other resins, due to relatively low laminate
mechanical properties in compression. Uses harmful isocyanates as curing agent. Typical costs:
£2-8/kg

Bismaleimides (BMI)
Primarily used in aircraft composites where operation at higher temperatures (230°C wet/250°C
dry) is required. e.g. engine inlets, high-speed aircraft flight surfaces. Typical costs: >£50/kg.

Polyimides
Used where operation at higher temperatures than bismaleimides can stand is required (use up to
250°C wet/300°C dry). Typical applications include missile and aero-engine components.
Extremely expensive resin (>£80/kg), which uses toxic raw materials in its manufacture.
Polyimides also tend to be hard to process due to their condensation reaction emitting water
during cure, and are relatively brittle when cured.

Thermoplastic Resins

Thermoplastic composites (TMCs) evolved from structural polymer composites. While structural
polymer composites (e.g. epoxy and polyester thermosetting resins reinforced with continuous
filaments or fibres greater than 10mm in length) had many beneficial properties such as low
density, good mechanical properties combined with good insulation and environmental resistance,
they suffered from chemical instability, i.e, the impregnated intermediate or prepreg has a limited
shelf life.

TMC’s do not suffer from this problem as they use a thermoplastic matrix. When heated they
soften and can be remoulded without degradation. When they cool, they solidify into the finished
shape. This heating/cooling cycle can be repeated many times, thus giving the product an almost
indefinite shelf life. They can be shaped using techniques derived from wood and metalworking
and have increased damage tolerances due to the tough nature of the matrix material. They also
lend themselves to recycling, unlike thermoset composites.

TMC’s can be split broadly into 2 categories:

· Glass Mat Thermoplastics (GMT) and,

· Advanced Thermoplastic Composites (ATC)

Glass Mat Thermoplastics

GMT’s can use nearly any thermoplastic for the matrix, however, in practice choices have been
limited to polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene and polyamide, with polypropylene accounting for
about 95% of commercial use. It is also a suitable material when service temperatures remain
below about 110°C.

Advanced Thermoplastic Composites

Originally, ATC’s used amorphous resins such as polyethersulphone (PES) and polyetherimide
(PEI) for the matrix. However where increased solvent resistance was required, semi-crystalline
polymers such as polyether ether ketone (PEEK) and polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) may be
employed. The continuous reinforcement may be made from carbon, aramid and/or S-, R- and E-
glass. Carbon is the most popular material for higher temperature applications, while E-glass
dominates lower temperature applications.

Key Properties
· Low density, hence light weight
· Good strength
· Good toughness
· Good environmental resistance
· Ability to be remoulded

Applications

Automotive Industry

Due to the light weight and high toughness GMT’s have been adopted by the automotive
industry. Applications include seat frames, battery trays, bumper beams, load floors, front ends,
valve covers, rocker panels and under engine covers.

Aerospace Industry

ATC’s have found limited use in the aerospace industry and came about due to the need for
tougher composites. They are analogous to the first thermoset composites with fibre contents
above 50vol% and utilise a highly aligned continuous fibre structure. Actual applications include
missile and aircraft stabiliser fins, wing ribs and panels, fuselage wall linings and overhead
storage compartments, ducting, fasteners, engine housings and helicopter fairings.

Construction Industry

Thermosplastic composites are used in the construction industry for structural profiles, pipes,
concrete rebars and lightweight structural and insulating panels.

Thermoplastic prepregs can be manufactured using a number of approaches, most importantly:

- Melt impregnation where the fibres are covered with thin molten polymer films and
pressure is applied.

- Solvent impregnation where the polymer is dissolved in a solvent, applied to the fibres and
the solvent then evaporated by heating.

- Powder impregnation where polymer powder is sprinkled on the fibres and attracted to the
fibres through electrostatic effects.

- - Hybrised weaves where polymer fibres are woven with glass or glass fibres
AET4203 CLASS EXERCISE

LAMINATE NOTATIONS
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4

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Example 5
Example 6