Civil Engineering Department

College of Engineering

Course: Soil and Rock Mechanics

(CE 260)

Lecturer: Dr. Frederick Owusu-Nimo

• What is Soil Mechanics?
o It is a discipline in Civil Engineering that
applies principles from engineering
mechanics (Basic Mechanics) and
Elementary fluid mechanics to determine
or predict the behavior of soil.

• Why Soil Mechanics?

o Whatever structure we build, the ultimate
foundation or support is the Earth
o Need to study the behavior of the soil
and its interactions with the structure, to
ensure its stability and safety of the
people who use it.
Soils as Foundation Material

What supports these structures?

 Soils as Foundation Material
• Proper functioning of these
structures require well
designed foundations
o A foundation is the material,
which provides satisfactory
and economical support for
the structure.

o Foundation includes both the

soil under the structure and
intervening load carrying
members
Soils as Foundation Material
Location of competent soil material

Shallow Foundation
Deep Foundation
Soils as Construction Material

Earth dam Road pavement

Use of Soil as construction material requires

o Selection of appropriate soil type (Why?)
o Selection of appropriate method of placement
o Control of actual placement
 Soil in Slope and Excavations
Important to carry out stability analysis of excavations and slope of
embankments to prevent failures and disasters
 Earth Retaining and
Underground Structures
• Design against lateral or earth pressures on retaining walls
• Design against pipe crushing and pipe sag due to foundation
settlement or failure

Braced Excavations- Subjected Buried Pipeline – subjected

to lateral stresses to stresses from overburden
Solution of Soil Engineering
Problem

Solving any soil-engineering

problem requires
• Knowledge in soil mechanics
and engineering geology

• Experience (including case

studies)

• Economics (to allow selection of

best solution among possible
ones)
 Formation of Soils
• Important to determine engineering
properties of soils
• Engineering properties of soils influenced by
how the soil is formed
• Knowledge of the soil forming process greatly
facilitate engineering classification of soils
• How are Soils formed?
o Soils are formed by disintegration of rocks through
the process of weathering
• Physical (Mechanical) Weathering
• Chemical Weathering
 Physical Weathering
• Break down of parent rock by mechanical
processes such as abrasion, expansion
and contraction
• Factors
o Temperature changes
o Freezing and thawing of water in cracks
o Rainfall, wind and sediment transport
• Soils produced maintain the same
chemical composition (crystal structure) as
the parent rock
 Chemical Weathering
• Involves break down of rock atomic
structure, and the changing of its mineral
from one form to another

• It results from reactions of rock minerals

with:
o Oxygen (Oxidation),
o Water (Hydrolysis),
o Alkaline/acidic materials dissolved in water
(Dissolution)
 Chemical Weathering
• These processes can
o Lead to ‘rusting’ of iron rich rocks
o Increase the volume of materials e.g. clay
mineral absorbing water and expanding
o Dissolve part of rock matter creating voids in
them e.g. caves in rocks
• Physical weathering also enhances
chemical weathering
• Soils produced have their physical and
chemical characteristics modified
Types of soils based on rock type
Rock Type Rock Soil Formed
Silty Sands, Sandy Silts
Granite
Igneous Rocks with some clay
Basalt Clayey Soils
Shale Clays and silts
Sedimentary rocks
Sandstone Sandy Soils
Limestone Fine grained soils
Gneiss
Silty sand soils
Schist
Slate Clayey Soils
Metamorphic rocks
Marble Fine grained Soils
Coarse grained soils (
Quartzite
Sand and gravels)
Types of soils based on method
of formation
• Sedimentary soils (Transported Soils)
o Refers to soils formed at one location,
transported and deposited at another
location
o Agents of transportation
• Wind
• Water
• Gravity
 Formation of Soils
• Residual soils
o Soils formed and accumulated at
same location (They are not
transported)

• Residual Soil Profile?

o Parent rock entirely altered in mineral
form near the surface
o Alteration lesser at greater depth
Constituent of Soils
Primary rock minerals
o Pieces broken from parent rock
o Sizes greater than 0.002 mm

Clay minerals
o Mainly products of chemical
weathering
o Particle sizes less than 0.002 mm
o Basic clay minerals
• Kaolinite
• Illite
• Montmorillonite
Soil type based on Particle
Size
Designation Category Particle Size (mm)
Boulders > 200

Cobbles 60 - 200

Coarse 20 – 60
Medium 6 – 20
Gravel
Fine 2- 6

Coarse 0.6 – 2
Medium 0.2 – 0.6
Sand
Fine 0.06 – 0.2

Coarse 0.02 – 0.06

Medium 0.006- 0.02
Silt
Fine 0.002-0.006

Clay Fine < 0.002

Soil type based on Particle
Size

Cobbles 60-200mm

Boulders > 200mm

Gravels 2-60mm
Determination of PSD
? Sieve Analysis
Sieves commonly used
BS Sieve ASTM
Aperture
Designation Designation
1 in 26.5 mm
¾ in 19.0 mm
½ in 0.53 in 13.2 mm
3/8 in 3/8 in 9.5 mm
¼ in 0.265 in 6.7 mm
3/16 in No. 4 4.75 mm
No. 7 No. 8 2.36 mm
No. 14 No. 16 1.18 mm
No. 25 No. 30 600 μm
No. 36 No. 40 425 μm
No. 52 No. 50 300 μm
No. 72 No. 70 212 μm
No. 100 No. 100 150 μm
No. 200 No. 200 75 μm
Sieve Analysis (Stack of
Sieves)
 Example
US Sieve Size Wight
An air dry soil sample Analysis Opening Retained
weighing 2000g is (mm) (g)
brought to the soils ¾ in 19.0 0
lab for mechanical 3/8 in 9.5 158
grain size analysis. No. 4 4.75 308
No. 10 2.0 608
The lab data are
N0. 40 0.425 652
give n in the table.
No. 100 0.150 224
No. 200 0.075 42
Pan - 8
 Example
US Sieve Size Wight % Retained Cumulative % Passing
Analysis Opening Retained % Retained
(mm) (g)

¾ in 19.0 0 0 0 100
3/8 in 9.5 158 7.9 7.9 92.1
No. 4 4.75 308 15.4 23.3 76.7
No. 10 2.0 608 30.4 53.7 46.3
N0. 40 0.425 652 32.6 86.3 13.7
No. 100 0.150 224 11.2 97.5 2.5
No. 200 0.075 42 2.1 99.6 0.4
Pan - 8 0.4 100 -
Determination of PSD
Hydrometer
Analysis Sieve Analysis
Hydrometer Analysis
Features of PSD Curve
 Features of PSD Curve
• Median Size (D50) – diameter at which 50% of the soil
by weight is finer
• Effective Size (D10) - diameter at which 10% of the
soil by weight is finer
𝐷60
• Coefficient of Uniformity , Cu; Cu =
𝐷10

𝐷230
• Coefficient of Curvature, Cc; 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60 ×𝐷10
 Nature of PSD Curves

Well Graded Soil A

Uniform Graded Soil C
Gap Graded Soil B Poorly Graded
Atterberg Limits
 Atterberg Limits
• Shrinkage Limit (SL): Water content below which no further
volumetric change takes place as soil is dried
• Liquid Limit (LL): Water content beyond which soil flows under
a specified small force
• Plastic Limit (PL): Water content beyond which plastic
deformation can be initiated. Minimum water content at
which soil can be rolled into a thread 3mm thick
• Plasticity Index: Range of water content over which soil
remains in plastic condition. PI = LL – PL
• Liquidity Index (LI): Indicate nearness of a natural soil to the
liquid limit
• Activity of Clay: Index for identifying the swelling potential of
clay soils. Higher activity implies higher swelling potential.
 Atterberg Limits
Typical Values of LL and PL for some common clay
minerals

Clay Mineral Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Activity

Kaolinite 35-100 20-40 0.3 – 0.5

Illite 55-120 35-60 0.5 – 1.2
Montmorillonite 100-800 50-100 1.5 – 7.0
Atterberg Limits
 Soil Classification System
• A universal language where soils of similar behavior are
grouped together, and systematic and rational ways are
proposed to classify and describe them.

• Classification based on PSD and Atterberg limits

• Can provide geotechnical engineers a general guidance

about engineering properties of the soils through the
accumulated experience

• Can be used to solve many types of simple foundation

problems without need for in depth investigations

• Can be used to guide a test program in case of in depth

investigations
 Soil Classification System
• Common classification systems for engineering
purposes
o Cassagrande Extended Soil Classification System
o The Unified Soil Classification System
o The American Association of State Highway and
Transport Officials (AASHTO) Soil Classification
System
 Cassagrande’s Extended Soil
Classification System
• Use PSD and Atterberg Limits
• Two main soil groups: Coarse grained and fine
grained
• Soils classified using two letters (Prefix and Suffix)
• Prefix –based on • Suffix – related to the
predominant particle engineering properties
size o W: Well-graded
o G: Gravel o P: Poorly-graded
o S: Sand o H: High plasticity (LL>50%)
o M: Silt o L: Low plasticity (LL<35%)
o C: Clay • e.g. : GW, SP, CH
o O: Organic GW = Well graded gravels
 Cassagrande’s Extended Soil
Classification System
For Coarse Grained Soils (< 50% fines)

• Prefix • Suffix
o G: Gravel (predominant o W: Well-graded
size > 2mm) o U: Uniform material
o S: Sand (predominant o P: Poorly-graded
size < 2mm) o C: Well graded with some
clay
o F: Well graded with
excess of fines
• e.g. : GW, GP, SP, SF
 Cassagrande’s Extended Soil
Classification System
For Fine Grained Soils (> 50% fines)
• Prefix
oC: Inorganic Clay (Plasticity
above A line)
o M: Silt (Plasticity below A line)
o O: Organic Clays(Plasticity
below A line)

• Suffix
o H: High Plasticity(LL>50%)
o I : Intermediate Plasticity
(35%<LL<50%)
o L: Low Plasticity(LL<35%) • e.g. : CH, ML, CL
 Unified Soil Classification System
• Similar to the Cassagrande’s Classification System
• Uses grain size distribution and Atterberg limits for
classification
• Commonly used for engineering projects
• Soils are grouped into
o Coarse grained
o Fine grained
o Highly Organic Soils
Unified Soil Classification System
50 %
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
>50% NO. 4 NO.200
4.75 mm 0.075 mm

•Grain size distribution •PL, LL

•Cu •Plasticity chart
•Cc
Unified Soil Classification
System
•Soil symbols: •Liquid limit symbols:
•G: Gravel •H: High Plasticity (LL>50)
•S: Sand •L: Low Plasticity (LL<50)
•M: Silt •Gradation symbols:
•C: Clay •W: Well-graded
•O: Organic •P: Poorly-graded
•Pt: Peat Well  graded soil
Example: SW, Well-graded sand 1  C c  3 and C u  4
SC, Clayey sand (for gravels )
1  C c  3 and C u  6
SM, Silty sand
(for sands)
 Classification Procedure
Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-grained
material
LL, PI

Highly

(Santamarina et al., 2001)

 Passing No.200 sieve 30 %
Example Passing No.4 sieve 70 %
LL= 33
PI= 12

Passing No.200 sieve 30 %

Passing No.4 sieve 70 %

LL= 33
PI= 12
PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line
PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49
SC
(15% gravel)
Clayey sand with Highly
gravel
43
 Organic Soils
• Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol Pt)
 A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in
various stages of decomposition, a dark-brown to black
color, and an organic odor should be designated as a
highly organic soil and shall be classified as peat, Pt.
• Organic clay (group symbol OL or OH):
 “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 %
of its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above
statement is true, then the first symbol is O.
 The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of
PI and LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.
Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
•A dual symbol is used for the following conditions
o Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
 About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the
coarse-grained media by orders of magnitude.
 The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or
poorly graded. The second symbol describe the contained
fines. For example: SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt.
o Fine-grained
soils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI
between 4 and 7 and LL between about 12 and 25).
 It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more clay like
materials.
 CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayey sand.
o Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.
 possible dual symbols GM-ML
Borderline Cases (Summary)

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

 The AASHTO Classification
System
• The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials system (AASHTO) classification
system is widely used for highway (road) work.
• The required parameters are grading curve, liquid limit
and plastic limit.
• Soils divided into 8 major groups: A1~ A7 (with several
subgroups) and organic soils A8.

A1 ~ A3 A4 ~ A7

Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials

 35% pass No. 200 sieve  36% pass No. 200 sieve
 The AASHTO Classification
System
• The group index (GI), an empirical formula, is used to
further evaluate soils within a group (subgroups).
The first term is determined by the LL

GI  (F200  35)0.2  0.005(LL  40)

 0.01(F200  15)(PI  10)
The second term is determined by the PI

• GI rounded off to the nearest whole number and

appended in parenthesis
• If GI = 0 or negative; then GI = 0
• In general, the rating for a pavement subgrade is
inversely proportional to the GI (lower the GI, better
the material).
Classification – Granular material

Das, 1998
 Classification- Silt clay material

Note:
Das, 1998
The first group from the left to fit the test data is the
correct AASHTO classification.
 % Passing No.200; 86%
Example LL=70, PI=32
LL-30=40 > PI=32
GI  (F200  35)0.2  0.005(LL  40)
% Passing No.200 86%
LL=70, PI=32
 0.01(F200  15)(PI  10)
LL-30=40 > PI=32  33.47  33 Round off A-7-5(33)
 Introduction
• What do you do when the soil at a site is not appropriate in
terms of its engineering properties?
o Avoid the potential soil problem
o Adapt the design to the site conditions or
o Improve the soil (Soil Stabilization)

• Soil improvement involves altering the soil properties to

improve its engineering performance
• One of the most important soil improvement methods is
densification and it is achieved through
o Compaction
o Preloading
o De-watering
 Compaction
• What is Compaction?
Is a deliberate process of pressing soil particles tightly
together by expelling air from its void space.
Involves application of energy to bring about densification
arising from the expulsion of air from the soil-water-air system

• Purpose of compaction is to produce a soil mass with

controlled or improved engineering properties.
• Compaction of soil increases its density producing
o An increase in its shear strength
o A decrease in compressibility (future settlement) of the soil
o A decrease in its permeability
 Compaction
• The amount of densification from compaction depends
on
o The amount of energy used
o The manner in which the energy is applied (e.g. static, dynamic
or vibratory)
o The type of soil involved
o The water content
• Compaction is quantified in terms of soil’s dry unit weight
(dry density) and moisture content
• Dry unit weight is computed from the wet unit weight
and moisture content
𝛾
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =
1+𝑤
 Compaction
• Dry soils can be best compacted if for each soil
a certain amount of water is added to it

• Water acts as a lubricant and allows soil particles

to be packed together better

• When too much water is added, a lesser density

results
• For a given compactive effort, there is a
particular moisture content at which dry unit
weight is greatest and compaction best
Compaction Curve
Upper limit of dry
unit weight
 Laboratory Compaction
• Compaction Equipment
o Base plate

o Removable collar

o Mould

o Hammer

• Specifications of
component dependent
on standardized
compaction test
 Laboratory Compaction
• Obtain soil sample from the field and allow to dry
• Prepare specimen for compaction by adding water and
mixing it thoroughly
• Place the specimen in the mold and compact in layers by
dropping the hammer a specified number of uniformly
distributed blows per layer
• The wet unit weight and moisture content of the compacted
specimen is determined
• The process is repeated by increasing the moisture content
• The dry density at each moisture content can be determined
from its measured wet unit weight and moisture content
• A compaction curve is plotted to determine the MDD and
OMC
 Laboratory Compaction
Mould No of Blows per Hammer Hammer Designation
Dimension layers layer Mass (kg) Drop (mm)
(mm)
101.6ф x 114 3 25 2.5 305 Standard
AASHTO

152ф x 177.8 5 55 4.54 457 Modified

AASHTO

101.6ф x 127 3 25 2.5 305 PROCTOR

 Example
• The combined weight of a mould and the specimen of
compacted soil is 4kg
• Mould’s volume is 9.44 x 10-4 m3
• Mould’s weight is 2kg
• Specimens water content is 10%
• Determine
o Bulk density
o Wet unit weight
o Dry Density
o Dry Unit weight
 Factors affecting Compaction
• The water content
• The amount of
compaction energy
used

• The type of soil

involved
 Factors affecting Compaction
• The amount of energy used (Compaction
Effort)
o Quantified in terms of the compaction energy per unit
volume.
o Depends on the
• Number of blows per layer (NB)
• Number of layers (NL)
• Weight of the hammer (WH)
• Height of drop of hammer (HD)
• Volume of compaction mould (VM)
𝑁𝐵 × 𝑁𝐿 × 𝑊𝐻 × 𝐻𝐷
𝐸=
𝑉𝑀
o Greater the compaction energy per unit volume, the greater
the compaction
Factors affecting Compaction
 Factors affecting Compaction
• The Type of Soil
o For a given compaction effort, the MDD and OMC depends
• The grain size distribution of soil
• The shape of solids
• Specific gravity of solids
• Type and amount of clay mineral present

o Higher dry unit weight is associated with well-graded granular

materials

o Uniformly graded sands, clays of high plasticity, organic silts

and clays respond poorly to compaction
Factors affecting Compaction
Factors affecting Compaction
Properties of Compaction
Structure of compacted cohesive soil

• Flocculated structure
o Reduced interparticle
repulsion
o Random particle orientation
o Few but larger voids (higher
permeability)

• Dispersed structure
o Increased interparticle
repulsion
o Greater degree of particle
orientation ( more parallel
orientation)
Properties of Compaction
Strength and Compressibility

• Dry side compaction

yields a structure that is
o brittle and of low
compressibility
o Higher strength

• Wet side compaction

o Flexible material of low strength
o Reduction in permeability of
soil
o Appropriate for core of earth
dam
Properties of Compaction
Degree of Saturation (Sr)

𝐺𝑠 1−𝜒 𝛾𝑤
• 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =
1+𝑤𝐺𝑠 −𝜒
• 𝜒 = 1 − 𝑆𝑟
• 𝜒 = Air void content

• When 𝜒 = 0
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
• 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =
1+𝑤𝐺𝑠
 Compaction Specification
Work Type Specification Performance Specification
• Tells contractor what to • Tells contractor what he
must achieve
do and how to do it
• The relative compaction
• Engineer specifies (RC) for cohesive soils and
o Type of compaction relative density for
equipment
cohesionless soils is specified
o Water content
• The acceptable range of
o Maximum lift of loose material
moisture content is also
o Number of passes of specified
compaction equipment
• Contractor responsible for
• Relieves contractor of achieving required
liabilities specification
 Compaction Specification
Relative Density – Cohesionless Soils

• Applicable to clean, 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒

𝐷𝑟 = × 100%
free draining granular 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
soils
e = void ratio of compacted soil
• Loosest possible
condition (max void 𝐷𝑟
ratio or min dry density) 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛾𝑑 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
=
• Densest possible 𝛾𝑑 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
condition (min void × 100%
ratio or max dry density) γd = dry density of compacted soil
 Compaction Specification
Relative Compaction – Cohesive Soils

𝛾𝑑
𝑅𝐶 % = × 100%
𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥

Contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted

field dry density of 90 -95% of the max dry density
determined in the lab.
 Field Compaction
Compaction Equipment

The type of equipment selected depends on

• The type of soil to be compacted

• The degree of compaction required

• The space available for compaction

 Compaction Equipment
Equipment Type Suitable for
Rollers Smooth wheel All soil types except wet
clay and uniformly
graded sand

Pneumatic tyred Most soil types

particularly wet cohesive
soils

Sheep foot Cohesive soils

Rammers Dropping Weight Small jobs e.g. trenches

Vibrators Vibratory rollers Granular soils

Vibrating plate Most soil types

 Compaction Control
• Compaction control tests involve determination of
insitu dry density and water content of the fill
o The sand replacement method
o Core cutter method
o Rubber balloon method
• Non destructive methods include
o Nuclear method
• Emits gamma rays through the soil
• Some absorbed; others reflects and reach a detector
• Soil unit weight inversely proportional to radiation reaching detector
o Intelligent compaction systems
• Continuous compaction control
• Measures acceleration of the drum and calculates compaction
meter value ( soil modulus or stiffness)
Field vrs laboratory Compaction
• Laboratory compaction can be different from the
actual field compaction characteristics because
o Compactive effort used in lab may be different from that used in field
o Particle size distribution may be different e.g. for modified AASHTO,
particles larger than 20mm are not used in lab
o Rigid mould used in lab imposes strict confinement whiles in the field there
is a certain degree of movement

• Despite these limitations, lab tests are very useful.

Information from the lab are used as a guide to
o The selection of equipment
o Possible level of compaction attainable in the field
o Most desirable water content
Soil Block Diagram
 Soil Block Diagram

Volume of Voids, Vv = Va + Vw W = Mg
 Weight / Mass relationship
• Water Content (w) is the ratio of weight of water
to weight of solids expressed as percentage
𝑊𝑤
𝑤= × 100% in terms of weight
𝑊𝑠
or
𝑀𝑤
𝑤= × 100% in terms of mass
𝑀𝑠

• Obtained by drying wet sample in oven

maintained at 105 - 110°C
 Unit Mass (Density) or Unit Weight
• Bulk Unit Weight is total weight over total volume
𝑊𝑇
𝛾𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 =
𝑉𝑇
• Bulk Unit Mass ( Bulk Density)
𝑀𝑇
𝜌𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 = 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉𝑇

• Usually, when we say unit weight, we imply the

bulk unit weight or wet unit weight
 Unit Mass (Density) or Unit Weight
• Dry Unit Weight is weight of solids divided by total
volume
𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =
𝑉𝑇
• Dry Unit Mass ( Dry Density)
𝑀𝑠
𝜌𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉𝑇

• Relationship between Dry and Wet Unit weight

𝑊𝑠 𝛾𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = =
𝑉𝑇 1+𝑤
 Determination of Density
• For Cohesive Soils : Bulk density is determined
using the core-cutter method.

• For Granular or Cohesion less Soil: The bulk

density is determined by the Sand replacement
method
 Weight / Mass relationship
• Specific Gravity (Gs) : of Soil particles or solids is
the ratio of unit weight of solids (weight of solids
divided by volume of solids) to unit weight of
water
𝛾𝑠 𝜌𝑠
𝐺𝑠 = or 𝐺𝑠 =
𝛾𝑤 𝜌𝑤

• Range of Gs for common minerals is 2.55 – 2.75

 Volume relationships
• Void Ratio (e) : is the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids
expressed as a decimal fraction.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑉𝑣
𝑒= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑉𝑠
• Porosity (n) : is the ratio of volume of voids to total volume
expressed as a percentage.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑉𝑣
𝑛= = × 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑇

• Relationship between e and n

𝑛 𝑒
𝑒= 𝑛=
1−𝑛 1+𝑒
• Degree of Saturation (Sr)
𝑉𝑤
𝑆𝑟 = × 100%
𝑉𝑣
• Air void Content (Χ)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝝌=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
Relationship among Sr, e, w and Gs
 Example 1
• For a soil specimen; • Determine
Given that
o Void ratio
o The moist mass of soil
specimen is 20.7 kg o Degree of Saturation
o Specimen’s volume o Wet unit mass, dry unit
measured before drying is
mass
0.011m3
o Specimens dried mass is o Wet unit weight
16.3kg
o Dry unit weight
o Specific gravity of solids is
2.68
 Example 2
• For an undisturbed • Determine
sample; Given that
o Wet unit weight
o Void ratio = 0.78
o Dry unit weight
o Water content = 12%
o Degree of saturation
o Specific gravity of solids
= 2.68 o Porosity
 Introduction
• Stress is the force per unit area on a surface
• Normal Stress (σ) is the component of stress acting
perpendicular to a plane surface
• Shear Stress (𝜏) is the component which acts parallel to
the plane
 Introduction
• Principal Stress Planes: At any
stress point there exist three
orthogonal (i.e. mutually
perpendicular) planes on
which the shear stresses are
zero.
• Example for stress point O,
there can be xy, xz and yz
planes where the shear
stresses will be zero.
• These planes are called
Principal Stress Planes
 Introduction
• The normal stresses which act on the
principal stress planes are called the
Principal stresses
• The maximum of these stresses is the Major
principal stress (𝜎1 )
• The minimum stress is called the Minor
Principal Stress (𝜎3 )
• The intermediate stress is termed the
Intermediate Principal Stress (𝜎2 )
• Interested in two-dimensional stress and
more importantly the planes containing
𝜎1 and 𝜎3
• The difference between 𝜎1 and 𝜎3 is the
Deviator Stress or Stress Difference (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )
Mohr Circle
 Mohr Circle
𝜎1 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜎𝛼 = + cos 2𝛼
2 2
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏𝛼 = sin 2𝛼
2
• Plotting this ‘circle’ in the τ-σ Space for the element
gives the Mohr circle of stress.
• This represents the state of stress at a point at
equilibrium.
• Any point on the circle represents the stress (normal
and shear) on a plane inclined at an angle 𝛼 to the
horizontal plane ( or minor principal stress)
 Example

Given the stress condition above, find the stresses on plane BB

 Mohr Coulomb Failure
Criteria
• When do we say a foundation or slope has failed?
o If the load or stress is increased until deformations become
unacceptably large, we say the soil in the foundation or slope has
‘failed’

• In this case we are referring to the strength of the

material, which is really the max or ultimate stress
the material can sustain
• In geotechnical engineering, we are generally
concerned with the shear strength of soils and
rocks, because, in most of our problems in
foundations, failure results from excessive applied
shear stresses.
Mohr Coulomb Failure
Criteria
• Point A - shear failure
will not occur along
the plane
• Point B – shear failure
will occur along the
plane
• Point C – cannot exist
because failure would
have occurred
already

Illustration for one Plane

 Mohr Coulomb Failure
Criteria

• If Mohr circle touches failure line (i.e tangential) then failure

occurs
• The condition where the Mohr circle touches the coulomb’s
failure envelope is known as the Mohr-Coulomb failure condition
Characteristics of Failure Plane

• Angle of
failure plane
Φ
𝜃 = 45° + 2
 Shear Resistance Between
Soil Particles
• The resistance of soil to
deformation (Shear strength) is
influenced strongly by the shear
resistance at contacts between
particles
• The shear strength refers to the
soils ability to resist sliding along
internal surfaces within a soil
mass.
• The shear resistance is
proportional to the normal force
pushing the particles together
Shear Resistance Between
Soil Particles
• Coulomb observed that for the shear strength of
soils there is:
o Stress-independent component of shear strength
o Stress dependent component
𝜏 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑛 tan ∅
• Shear strength proportional to the normal force
pushing the two particles together
• The stress independent is related to the intrinsic
cohesion of the material
• The c and ∅ are called strength parameters and
they are determined in the laboratory
 Geostatic Stresses
• When there are no external load, stresses within a
soil are caused by the weight of the soil
• For an almost homogenous soil with a horizontal
ground surface, the pattern of stresses is known as
Geostatic Stresses
• For such conditions, there are no shear stresses
upon the vertical and horizontal planes within the
soil
• The vertical geostatic stress is given by 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑧
• For stratified soil geostatic stress is
𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾1 𝑧1 + 𝛾2 𝑧2 + 𝛾3 𝑧3
Geostatic Stresses
• For homogenous soils,
vertical geostatic stress
is given by:
𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑧

• For stratified soil,

geostatic stress is
𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾1 𝑧1 + 𝛾2 𝑧2 + 𝛾3 𝑧3

𝜎𝑣 = ෍ 𝛾𝑧
 Concept of Stress in a
Particulate System
Soil element A with static • Total vertical stress due
ground water above it to soil grain and water
pressure
𝜎𝑣 = 𝜎 ′ + 𝑢
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑧𝑤
• Effective stress principle
o 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎𝑣 − 𝑢
o Effective stress controls
several aspects of soil
behavior such as
compression and strength
Concept of Effective
Stress

• Effective stress
𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑧1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑧2 − 𝛾𝑤 𝑧2
𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑧1 + (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝛾𝑤 )𝑧2
 Laboratory measurement
of Shear Strength
• The Triaxial Test – most
common test for
determining the stress
strain strength
properties of soils
• Triaxial Apparatus
o Triaxial Cell System
• Base, Removable cylinder,
loading ram
o Pressure Supplying System
o Measuring System
• Proving ring
• Dial gauge
• Pore pressure transducer
• Volume gauge
 Laboratory measurement
of Shear Strength
• The Triaxial Test Procedure
o Wrap a cylindrical soil specimen in a rubber membrane
and place it in the triaxial chamber
o Apply a confining pressure (𝜎3 ) by means of water on the
sample
o Apply a vertical axial load and increase steadily until
sample fails.
o The applied load is the deviator stress (Δp)
o The total vertical pressure at failure is 𝜎1 = 𝜎3 + Δ𝑝𝑓
o Repeat the procedure on another sample for a different
confining pressure
 Laboratory measurement
of Shear Strength
• The Triaxial Test Procedure
o Undrained Triaxial Test
• This is when the test condition does not allow drainage of
water out of sample during triaxial compression
• Undrained tests are constant volume test ( no volume
change)
• Changes in cross sectional areas during testing must be
taken into account
• When sample is consolidated in the triaxial apparatus
before undrained triaxial compression, the test is
Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Test
o Drained Triaxial Test
• The test condition allows for drainage of water out of
sample during triaxial compression (shearing)
• The volume of sample continues to change during
throughout the test
Laboratory measurement
of Shear Strength
The Triaxial Test Results
 Laboratory measurement
of Shear Strength
The Triaxial Test Results
• The strength σ3 σ1-σ3 σ1 Uf σ3’ σ1'
parameters can be in 350 319 669 256 94 413
terms of total stress or
effective stress
• Total stress parameters
(c and Φ)
• Effective stress
parameters (c’ and Φ’)
 Example
• Triaxial compression tests on three specimens of a
soil sample were performed. Each test was
carried out until the specimen experienced shear
failure. Determine the soil’s cohesion and angle
of internal friction. The test data are as follows:

Specimen Confining Pressure, Deviator Stress at

𝜎3 (kips/ft2) failure, Δp (kips/ft2)

1 1.44 5.76
2 2.88 6.85
3 4.32 7.50
Example
 Laboratory measurement
of Shear Strength
• Direct Shear Test Procedure
o Place a specimen in a relatively flat square box
o A normal load of specific magnitude is applied
o A shear stress is applied by forcing the two halves of the box in
opposite directions until failure occurs in the horizontal plane
o Test is repeated with different normal loads
Laboratory measurement
of Shear Strength
Direct Shear Test results