1.

Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

 Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in
decision-making and game theory. It provides an optimal move for the player
assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.
 Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game-tree.
 Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess,
Checkers, tic-tac-toe, go, and various tow-players game. This Algorithm computes
the minimax decision for the current state.
 In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is called
MIN.
 Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit while
they get the maximum benefit.
 Both Players of the game are opponent of each other, where MAX will select the
maximized value and MIN will select the minimized value.
 The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the exploration
of the complete game tree.
 The minimax algorithm proceeds all the way down to the terminal node of the
tree, then backtrack the tree as the recursion.

Working of Min-Max Algorithm:

 The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example.
Below we have taken an example of game-tree which is representing the two-player
game.
 In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is called
Minimizer.
 Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to get
the minimum possible score.
 This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way through
the leaves to reach the terminal nodes.
 At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those value
and backtrack the tree until the initial state occurs. Following are the main steps
involved in solving the two-player game tree:

o For node D         max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4

o For Node E         max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6
o For Node F         max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3
 o For node G         max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7

Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes value with +∞,
and will find the 3rd layer node values.

o For node B= min(4,6) = 4

o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

That was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a solution (if

exist), in the finite search tree.
o Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are playing optimally.
o Time complexity- As it performs DFS for the game-tree, so the time complexity of
Min-Max algorithm is O(bm), where b is branching factor of the game-tree, and m is
the maximum depth of the tree.
o Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also similar to DFS
which is O(bm).

2. Alpha-Beta Pruning
o Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an
optimization technique for the minimax algorithm.
o As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states it
has to examine are exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate the
exponent, but we can cut it to half. Hence there is a technique by which without
checking each node of the game tree we can compute the correct minimax decision,
and this technique is called pruning. This involves two threshold parameter Alpha
and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha-beta pruning. It is also called
as Alpha-Beta Algorithm.
 o Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it not only
prune the tree leaves but also entire sub-tree.
o The two-parameter can be defined as:

a. Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any point

along the path of Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.
b. Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along
the path of Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.
o The Alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm returns the same move as
the standard algorithm does, but it removes all the nodes which are not really
affecting the final decision but making algorithm slow. Hence by pruning these nodes,
it makes the algorithm fast.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning:

The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is:

1. α>=β  

Key points about alpha-beta pruning:

o The Max player will only update the value of alpha.

o The Min player will only update the value of beta.
o While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes instead of
values of alpha and beta.
o We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.
Working of Alpha-Beta Pruning
Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the working of Alpha-beta
pruning

Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A where α= -∞ and
β= +∞, these value of alpha and beta passed down to node B where again α= -∞ and β= +∞,
and Node B passes the same value to its child D.

Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The value of α is
compared with firstly 2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be the value of α at node D
and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change as this is a turn
of Min, Now β= +∞, will compare with the available subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3)
= 3, hence at node B now α= -∞, and β= 3.
In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E, and the
values of α= -∞, and β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change. The current
value of alpha will be compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at node E α= 5 and β= 3,
where α>=β, so the right successor of E will be pruned, and algorithm will not traverse it, and
the value at node E will be 5.
Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A. At node A,
the value of alpha will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as max (-∞, 3)= 3, and
β= +∞, these two values now passes to right successor of A which is Node C.

At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to node F.

Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is 0, and
max(3,0)= 3, and then compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)= 3 still α remains
3, but the node value of F will become 1.
Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here the value of
beta will be changed, it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now at C, α=3 and β= 1, and
again it satisfies the condition α>=β, so the next child of C which is G will be pruned, and the
algorithm will not compute the entire sub-tree G.

Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) = 3.
Following is the final game tree which is the showing the nodes which are computed and
nodes which has never computed. Hence the optimal value for the maximizer is 3 for this
example.

Move Ordering in Alpha-Beta pruning:

The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on the order in which each node
is examined. Move order is an important aspect of alpha-beta pruning.

3. What is Expert System?

Expert System is an interactive and reliable computer-based decision-making system which
uses both facts and heuristics to solve complex decision-making problems. It is considered at
the highest level of human intelligence and expertise. The purpose of an expert system is to
solve the most complex issues in a specific domain.

Examples of Expert Systems

Following are the Expert System Examples:

 MYCIN: It was based on backward chaining and could identify various bacteria that
could cause acute infections. It could also recommend drugs based on the patient’s
weight. It is one of the best Expert System Example.
 DENDRAL: Expert system used for chemical analysis to predict molecular structure.
 PXDES: An Example of Expert System used to predict the degree and type of lung
cancer
 CaDet: One of the best Expert System Example that can identify cancer at early
stages

Characteristics of Expert System

Following are the important Characteristics of Expert System in AI:

 The Highest Level of Expertise: The Expert system in AI offers the highest level of
expertise. It provides efficiency, accuracy and imaginative problem-solving.

 Right on Time Reaction: An Expert System in Artificial Intelligence interacts in a

very reasonable period of time with the user. The total time must be less than the time
taken by an expert to get the most accurate solution for the same problem.

 Good Reliability: The Expert system in AI needs to be reliable, and it must not make
any a mistake.

 Flexible: It is vital that it remains flexible as it the is possessed by an Expert system.

 Effective Mechanism: Expert System in Artificial Intelligence must have an efficient

mechanism to administer the compilation of the existing knowledge in it.

 Capable of handling challenging decision & problems: An expert system is

capable of handling challenging decision problems and delivering solutions.

Components of Expert System

The Expert System in AI consists of the following given components:

User Interface
The user interface is the most crucial part of the Expert System Software. This component
takes the user’s query in a readable form and passes it to the inference engine. After that, it
displays the results to the user. In other words, it’s an interface that helps the user
communicate with the expert system.

Inference Engine
The inference engine is the brain of the expert system. Inference engine contains rules to
solve a specific problem. It refers the knowledge from the Knowledge Base. It selects facts
and rules to apply when trying to answer the user’s query. It provides reasoning about the
information in the knowledge base. It also helps in deducting the problem to find the solution.
This component is also helpful for formulating conclusions.

Knowledge Base
The knowledge base is a repository of facts. It stores all the knowledge about the problem
domain. It is like a large container of knowledge which is obtained from different experts of a
specific field.

Advantages of Expert System

Below are the main advantages/benefits of Expert Systems in Artificial Intelligence (AI):

 It improves the decision quality

 Cuts the expense of consulting experts for problem-solving
 It provides fast and efficient solutions to problems in a narrow area of specialization.
 It can gather scarce expertise and used it efficiently.
  Offers consistent answer for the repetitive problem
 Maintains a significant level of information
 Helps you to get fast and accurate answers
 A proper explanation of decision making
 Ability to solve complex and challenging issues
 Artificial Intelligence Expert Systems can steadily work without getting emotional,
tensed or fatigued.

Limitations of Expert System

Below are the disadvantages/limitations of Expert System in AI:

 Unable to make a creative response in an extraordinary situation

 Errors in the knowledge base can lead to wrong decision
 The maintenance cost of an expert system is too expensive
 Each problem is different therefore the solution from a human expert can also be
different and more creative

Applications of Expert Systems

Some popular Application of Expert System:

 Information management
 Hospitals and medical facilities
 Help desks management
 Employee performance evaluation
 Loan analysis
 Virus detection
 Useful for repair and maintenance projects
 Warehouse optimization
 Planning and scheduling
 The configuration of manufactured objects
 Financial decision making Knowledge publishing
 Process monitoring and control
 Supervise the operation of the plant and controller
 Stock market trading
 Airline scheduling & cargo schedules