PC-FT 403

Lecture (3) by Department of Food Technology

Dr. Indira Dey Paul Haldia Institute of Technology
Contact stresses between bodies: Hertz problems – firmness
and hardness – mechanical damage – impact damage and dead
load damage – vibration damage – friction – effect of load,
sliding velocity, temperature, water film and surface roughness
– friction in agricultural materials – rolling resistance – angle
of internal friction, angle of repose – flow of bulk granular
materials.
❖ Mechanical properties maybe defined as those which affect the behaviour of the agricultural material under applied force.
❖ The mechanical properties of food include
o Hardness
o Compressive strength
o Impact and shear resistance
❖ The data on these properties are useful for application in designing equipment for milling, handling, storage, transportation, food processing,
etc.
❖ The hardness of grains determine its milling characteristics.
❖ The mechanical damage to grain and seed during harvesting, threshing and handling
o reduces germination power and viability of seeds
o increases chances of insect/pest infestation during storage
o affects the quality of the final product.
❖ The impact and shear resistance are important for size reduction of food grains. These information are useful in determination of the
appropriate methods of crushing, breaking or grinding the grains.
❖ Mechanical properties are behaviour of food/agricultural materials when subjected to external forces.
❖ The forces acting on the material are expressed as stress. Stress is defined as force components acting on a body per unit
cross-sectional area or area of the deformed specimen (N/mm2 or Pa).
❖ Three stresses that characterize foods mechanically are:
o Compressive stress – directed towards the material
o Tensile stress – directed away from the material
o Shear stress – directed tangentially towards the material
❖ Shear stress is mostly applicable for fluids or viscous materials.
❖ Stress can act on food at different mechanical situations:
o Static – constant stress or strain
o Dynamic – varying stress or strain
o Impact – stress exerted and removed after a short period of time.
❖ Solid foods are mechanically characterized by compression tests or impact tests.
❖ The response of materials to stress is deformation, strain.
❖ Strain is the change in size or shape of a body in response to the applied force. It is a dimensionless ratio.
❖ A material can deform in 3 ways:
o Elastic
o Plastic
o Viscous 𝑉𝑓 −𝑉0
Dilation strain =
❖ Deformation depends on many factors 𝑉0

o Rate of applied force

o Previous loading
o Moisture content
o Biomaterial composition
❖ Stresses and strain can also be described as
o Dilation stress or strain – causes change in volume.
o Deviatoric stress or strain – causes change in shape, but negligible changes in volume.
❖ Contact between solids is undeniably important because it is such a common and critical occurrence in our
daily lives.
❖ When two objects are brought together, their matters may initially attract, but as they get closer and closer,
the attraction will eventually decrease and turn to repulsion which coincides with our intuitive description of
contact.
❖ Contacts can and do cause very high stresses between objects that can cause failure in the form of fracture,
yielding, surface fatigue and wear.
❖ Predicting these stresses with a great deal of resolution can also be very difficult since surfaces are almost
always significantly rough and possess a complicated and perhaps unpredictable geometry. Within these
complex interactions, many phenomena such as friction, wear and contact resistance are governed.
❖ Although friction and wear have been the subject of humans’ thoughts and creations since ancient times, the
application of mechanics to contact problems probably first began with a German physicist, Heinrich Hertz.
❖ He first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves theorized by
James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light. The unit of frequency, cycles per
second, was named the ‘Hertz’ in his honour.
❖ To develop his contact stress theory, Hertz used his observation of elliptical Newton’s
rings formed upon placing a glass sphere upon a lens.
❖ Hertzian contact theory is a classical theory of contact mechanics and is a very useful
tool for engineers and researchers.
❖ Here we will discuss about some of the useful contact mechanics tools by first
discussing the contact of elastic smooth curved surfaces as Hertz first described.
The following assumptions are made in determining the solutions of Hertzian contact problems:
o The strains are small and within elastic limit.
o The surfaces are continuous and non-conforming (implying that the area of contact is much smaller
than the characteristic dimensions of contacting bodies.
o Each body can be considered an elastic half-space.
o The surfaces are frictionless.
Elastic Cylindrical Contact (Line)
❖ Perhaps the most popular and widely used solution in contact mechanics is the contact of two elastic
axisymmetric and parabolic structures, first solved by Hertz.
❖ The solution provides a precise approximation of elastic contact between cylinders and spheres.
❖ The Hertz solution assumes that the interference is small enough such that geometry does not change
significantly and that the surface interactions are frictionless and only repulsive.
❖ When a cylinder contacts a flat surface, the contact area is initially a line until
it grows and becomes a rectangle.
❖ The same is also true when two cylinders come into contact and their axes of
symmetries are parallel.
❖ Therefore, cylindrical contacts are often referred to as line contacts. Figure 4.1: Schematic of the contact area
between a cylinder and a flat surface.
❖ Hamrock provided the solution to the deflection of an elastic cylindrical contact:

𝐹 4𝜋𝐸 ′ 𝑅𝐿 (X1)
𝛿= ln −1
𝜋𝐸 ′ 𝐿 𝐹

Where F = load transmitted between the bodies in contact, E’ = equivalent elastic modulus of the two bodies and
R = equivalent radius of curvature.
and according to Johnson, the half contact width is (the contact area is the cylinder length multiplied by twice the
half width)

1/2
4𝐹𝑅 (X2)
𝑏=
𝜋𝐿𝐸 ′
E’ is given by (each surface is denoted by subscript 1 and 2):

1 1 − 𝜈12 1 − 𝜈22
= + (X3)
𝐸′ 𝐸1 𝐸2
where 𝜈 = Poisson’s ratio (= - transverse strain/axial strain).
R can be given by:

1 1 1
= + (X4)
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
Where R1 and R2 are radii of curvature of two spheres.
❖ Contact between a convex and concave surface can also be considered.
❖ When the cylinders come into contact, the pressure follows a nearly parabolic profile and is zero at the edge of
contact and maximum at the centre or point of contact.
❖ The maximum normal stress of the cylindrical contact is of course on the surface at the centre of contact and is
also the maximum contact pressure given by

2𝐹
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (X5)
𝜋𝑏𝐿
❖ If the force applied to a cylindrical contact increases enough, eventually the material will fail or yield.
❖ This usually occurs below the surface because the maximum shear and von Mises stress (Von Mises stress is a
value used to determine if a given material will yield or fracture. It is mostly used for ductile materials, such as
metals. The von Mises yield criterion states that if the von Mises stress of a material under load is equal or
greater than the yield limit of the same material under simple tension then the material will yield.) are
sometimes located not on the contacting surfaces but at a depth below them.
❖ Green provided the following curve-fitting equations for the prediction of the initial yield or critical point for
cylindrical contact according to the von Mises yield criteria. For the case of plane strain, the critical contact
force to cause yielding is

2 (X6)
𝐹𝑐 𝜋𝑅 𝐶𝑆𝑦
=
𝐿 𝐸′
where C is a piecewise equation given by:
1 ❖ 𝜈 = 0.1938 also indicates a threshold
𝐶= when 𝜈 ≤ 0.1938 (X7)
1+4 𝜈−1 𝜈 where when 𝜈 is greater than this, the point
of yielding occurs below the surface, and
𝐶 = 1.164 + 2.975𝜈 − 2.906𝜈 2 when 𝜈 ≤ 0.1938
when it is less, the initial yielding occurs on
In addition, the critical deflection and contact width are given by the surface.

𝐶𝑆𝑦
2
2𝐸 ′ ❖ In addition, the case of plane stress can
𝛿𝑐 = 𝑅 2 ln −1 (X8)
𝐸′ 𝐶𝑆𝑦 also be predicted by simply setting 𝜈 = 0.
❖ Unfortunately, very little work has been
2𝑅𝐶𝑆𝑦
𝑏𝑐 = (X9) performed on cylindrical contact once the
𝐸′
critical force has been surpassed and
significant plastic deformation occurs.
❖ Similar to cylindrical or line contact, Hertz also solved the case of an axisymmetric parabolic contact, which is often used to
model spherical elastic contact (Figure 4.2).
❖ Since a sphere initially contacts a surface only at a single point, this case is sometimes also referred to as point contact.
❖ This is also probably the most widely used contact model employed to describe single asperity contact occurring between two
rough surfaces.
❖ This widely used model provides the contact force as a function of interference
or deflection as
4 ′ 3/2
𝐹= 𝐸 𝑅 𝜔 (X10)
3
❖ And the contact area, which is circular, is given as
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅𝜔 = 𝜋𝑎2 (X11)

Figure 4.2: Schematic of the contact area

between a sphere and a flat surface.
❖ Just as with cylindrical contact, when the contact force reaches a critical value, the stress state will start to cause
yielding within the sphere.
❖ There are many models that have been devised to account for the plastic deformation of the sphere. Most
models also assume that the deformation is elastic-perfectly plastic, meaning there is no hardening in the
material. However, there is no known analytical solution to this problem, and therefore, many previous models
did not give the correct quantitative predictions.
❖ Jackson and Green improved upon these models by using the finite element method. Jackson and Green found
the following equations for the prediction of initial yielding in the sphere according to the von Mises yield
criteria:
2
𝜋𝐶𝑆𝑦
𝜔𝑐 = 𝑅
2𝐸 ′ (X12)
 𝐶 = 1.295 exp 0.736𝜈 (X13)
2
𝐶𝑆𝑦 𝑅
𝐴𝑐 = 𝜋 3 (X14)
2𝐸 ′
2 3
4 𝑅 𝐶
𝐹𝑐 = 𝜋𝑆
3 𝐸′ 2 𝑦 (X15)

❖ Once yielding occurs, the volume of plastically deforming material spreads and surrounds an “island” of
material near the centre of contact that is under hydrostatic stress and therefore not yet yielded according to
von Mises criteria.
❖ However, as the contact force is increased, eventually the entire surface in contact yields. When this occurs, it
is usually referred to as fully plastic contact.
❖ In the elastic regime and at relatively small displacements, the contact of an elastic-plastic sphere against a rigid
flat (i.e., flattening) and the contact of a rigid sphere against an elastic-plastic surface (i.e., indentation) are
practically equivalent.
❖ However, as the displacements increase, the two cases begin to diverge.
❖ Kogut and Komvopoulos investigated elastic-plastic indentation and found a similar behavior of the fully plastic
pressure to that of Jackson and Green.
❖ This case is important for using indentation tests for the measurement of material properties.
❖ Kogut and Komvopoulos found that the pressure during elastic-plastic indentation reached a maximum value at
a condition:

𝐻 𝐸′ (X16)
= 0.201 ln + 1.685
𝑆𝑦 𝑆𝑦
❖ Apart from the above mentioned conditions, there are other conditions of deformation as follows:
o Elastic 2D Sinusoidal or Harmonic Wavy Surface
o Elastic 3D Sinusoidal or Harmonic Wavy Surface
o Elasto-Plastic 3D Sinusoidal Contact
❖ The frictional properties such as coefficient of friction and angle of repose are important in designing of
storage bins, hoppers, chutes, pneumatic conveying system, screw conveyers, forage harvesters, threshers, etc.
❖ The rolling resistance or maximum angle of stability in rolling of round shaped agricultural materials is
useful in designing handling equipment e.g., conveying of fruits and vegetables by gravity flow.
❖ In mechanical and pneumatic conveying systems, the material generally moves or slides in direct contact with
the trough, casing and other components of the machine.
❖ Thus, various parameters affect the power requirement to drive the machine. Among these parameters, the
frictional losses is one of the factors which must be overcome by providing additional power to the machine.
Hence, the knowledge of frictional properties of the agricultural materials is necessary.
❖ Here, some of the important frictional properties of agricultural products have been described here.
Static Friction
The static friction maybe defined as the frictional forces acting between surfaces of contact at rest with respect to
each other.

Kinetic Friction
❖ It maybe defined as the frictional forces existing between the surfaces in relative motion.
❖ If 𝐹 is the force of friction, and 𝑊 is the force normal to the surface of contact, then the coefficient of
friction 𝑓 is given by Equation 4.1.
𝐹
𝑓= (4.1)
𝑊

❖ The coefficient of friction may also be given as the tangent of the angle of the inclined surface upon which
the frictional force tangential to the surface and the component of the weight normal to the surfaces are
acting.
Rolling Resistance
❖ If a round or cylindrical shaped object rolls over a horizontal surface with force, 𝐹, and the deformation in
surface occurs, there will be a resultant force, 𝑅, exerted by the surface on the body (Figure 4.1).
❖ If the moment of forces is taken about point of application of 𝑅 and the
accelerating force is neglected, then

෍ 𝑀𝑏 = 𝐹 × 𝑎 − 𝑊 × 𝑐 = 0 (4.2)

Assuming the deformation of the surface as very small, 𝑎 is

approximately equal to 𝑟, then Figure 4.1: Force exerted on a wheel in
motion.
𝐹×𝑟 𝑐×𝑊
𝑐= or 𝐹= (4.3)
𝑊 𝑟
The terms 𝑐 and 𝐹 maybe defined as the coefficient of rolling resistance and rolling resistance respectively.
❖ It is evident from the equation that for rigid surfaces, small values of 𝑐 is obtained resulting in smaller rolling
resistance.
❖ The rolling resistance is directly proportional to the weight of the rolling object and to the coefficient of
rolling resistance which is dependent on the rigidity of the supporting surface and indirectly proportional to
the effective radius of the rolling object.
❖ Various mechanisms have been designed by making use of difference in rolling resistance of the materials.
❖ One such example is the separation of potatoes and stones. The rolling resistance of stones differs from that
of potatoes. The equal rolling resistance is observed only in the case of large potatoes and very small stones.
Angle of Repose
❖ The angle of repose is the angle between the base and the slope of the cone formed on a free vertical fall of
the granular material to a horizontal plane.
❖ Factors affecting the angle of repose of grains
o Size of grains
o Shape of grains
o Moisture content of grains
o Orientation of grains
❖ There are two angles of repose
1. Static angle of repose: It is the angle of friction taken up by granular material to just slide upon itself.
2. Dynamic angle of repose: It comes in picture when bulk of the grain is in motion like discharge of
grain from bins and hoppers. (More important)
Measurement of angle of repose

❖ Method I: A wooden frame full of grain sample is mounted on a tilting top drafting table. The table top is
tilted till the grain starts moving over the inclined surface. The angle of inclination is measured, which is the
angle of repose of grain sample.

Figure 4.2: An apparatus for measurement of

angle of repose; 1. scale, 2. grain container.
❖ Method II: This apparatus consists of a circular platform immersed in a box filled with grain and with a glass
window on one side. The platform is supported by three adjustable screw legs and is surrounded by a metal
funnel leading to a discharge hole. The grain is allowed to escape from the box, leaving a free standing cone of
grains on the platform. A travelling microscope is used to measure the heights. The angle of repose, 𝜙, is
obtained from the geometry of the cone.

2 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑏
𝜙= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (4.4)
𝐷𝑏

Where Ha, Hb and Db are the height of the cone, height of the platform
and diameter of the platform respectively.

Figure 4.3: Measurement of angle of

repose; 1. box, 2. window, 3. grain, 4. circular
platform, 5. funnel, 6. adjustable leg..
 Table 4.1: The angle of repose for some grains

Grain Angle of repose, degree

Wheat 23-28
Paddy 30-45
Maize 30-40
Barley 28-40
Millets 20-25
Rye 23-28
Effect of moisture content on the angle of repose

❖ The angle of repose increases with increase in moisture content of material.

❖ This variation of angle of repose with moisture content occurs because surface layer of moisture
surrounding the particle holds the aggregate of grain together by surface tension.
❖ Empirical equation correlating angle of repose and moisture content of rice:

𝑀
tan 𝜑 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑑 (4.5)
𝐷𝑎𝑣

where φ = angle of repose, n = shape factor = (specific surface of solid)/(specific surface of sphere), M =
% moisture content, Dav= avg. screen particle diameter, s = specific gravity. a, b, c and d = constants.
 Angle of Internal Friction N
❖ Suppose a rectangular block is placed on an horizontal plane. The block will exert its R
A
weight W on the surface and simultaneously the plane will also exert a normal force
N at the opposite direction of W. If a force P is applied on the block parallel to the
horizontal plane, it will lead to the development of frictional force F at the opposite 𝛼 P
direction of P. A resultant force R can be drawn out of the forces N and F. The
B O
F
angle between the resultant force R and normal reaction force N is known as
the angle of internal friction (𝜶).
W=mg
❖ The relationship between the coefficient of friction (𝑓) and angle of internal friction
Figure 4.4: Angle of internal friction.
is given as 𝐴𝑅 𝐹 𝐹
tan 𝛼 = = = =𝑓 or tan 𝛼 = 𝑓 (4.6)
𝑂𝐴 𝑁 𝑊
❖ The angle of internal friction is an important property which helps to estimate the lateral pressure in
storage silos.
❖ Angle of internal friction values are also used in designing of storage bins and hopper for gravity
discharge.
❖ The coefficient of friction between grains is required as a design parameter for design of shallow and
deep bins.
 Difference between angle of repose and angle of internal friction
❖ The engineers generally assume that both the angle of repose and angle of internal friction are same.
❖ Some investigators have indicated that for sorghum, the angle of repose and angle of internal friction are different. If one is used
in place of other to design any system, it will lead to error.
❖ Some investigators also attempted to develop a relationship between angle of repose and angle of internal friction, so that by the
simple test of angle of repose, the angle of internal friction could be estimated. However, the results revealed that the two angles
run almost parallel to each other for various moisture content levels. Thus no simple relationship exists by which angle of internal
friction could be estimated from angle of repose within a reasonable accuracy.
❖ The angle of repose is generally higher than angle of the internal friction for the grains of approximately the same
moisture content and density.
❖ Angle of repose is useful in making discharge arrangements in bins and hoppers whereas angle of internal friction is needed for
estimating the lateral pressure in storage bins.
❖ The behaviour of food grains and other seeds depends upon their size, shape, density, ease of flow through
orifices/chutes, angle of repose, angle of internal friction, moisture content and other physical and chemical
properties.
❖ The granular materials behave as composite mass having the characteristics of a liquid and a solid.
❖ They behave as a liquid as they can form the shape of the container in which they are stored, but act as a solid
material because of formation of natural angle of repose when dumped on a level horizontal plane (liquid forms a
pool).
❖ When a static pressure is applied on a liquid, it is transmitted on all directions. To great extent this is also applicable
to a mass of granular material.
❖ Bulk grains offer resistance of a sliding force as offered by a solid.
❖ The bulk granular matter also possesses cohesive strength. The cohesive strength of granular material places them
between more cohesive solid and less cohesive liquids.
❖ The grain mass is a numerous small solid particles which can also move around each other and thus become a
flowing mass.
❖ The laws of hydrodynamics are not applicable to the flow of granular materials, because
i. Pressure is not uniformly distributed in all the directions due to development of arches and frictional
forces between granular particles.
ii. The solid grains have definite shape and size which govern the rate of flow. Fluids do not have these
properties.
iii. The rate of flow is not proportional to head.
❖ Information on the flow of grain through openings of various sizes, shapes and orientation is required to determine grain flow
and to properly size the opening for flow control during transfer of grain.
❖ Here we will discuss about the flow of bulk granular materials through vertical orifices.
❖ The flow pattern of granular bulk material is shown in Figure 4.5.
❖ To ensure reliable ‘first in first out’, laboratory testing of the stored
product to determine a number of critical properties such as its
unconfined compressive strength after consolidation, angle of internal
friction and the wall friction is required.
❖ Hopper slope angles of 60° or 70° - to achieve reliable mass flow
❖ Hopper slope angles of 30°-40° - pipe flow or funnel flow occur in
which the bottom layers of materials remain static until the upper
Figure 4.5: Flow pattern of granular bulk
material has been discharged. product with central discharge.
❖ Deming and Mehring applied dimensional analysis technique to study flow of solid particles through
funnels and proposed the following relationship.
𝑑
𝑡𝐷2.5 𝑤 = 𝑓 (4.7)
𝐷
Where t = time, minutes for flow of 100 g material; D = orifice diameter, mm; d = equivalent particle
diameter, mm; w = bulk density, g/cc.
𝑑
❖ They could not establish the actual form of the function 𝑓 and proposed that
𝐷
100𝐷2.5 𝑤
𝑄= 𝜑 (4.8)
tan 𝜑 34.6 + 37.4 + 444 sin 2 𝑑ҧ + 0.13 − 0.161 tan 𝜑
0.8 𝑑2 −𝑑1 5 5
Where Q=flow rate, g/min; 𝜑 = angle of repose; 𝑑ҧ = 𝑑4 −𝑑 4 , d2 and d1 = major and minor dimensions of
2 1
particle.
❖ Ewalt and Buelow (1963) reported that the flow rate of grain through an orifice is independent of the depth
of grain above the opening.
❖ Beverlloetal (1961) suggested that the flow rate varies with orifice, are 0.75 times the hydraulic diameter raised
to 0.5 power for flow through horizontal openings.

𝑄 = 0.75𝐴𝑒 𝑔𝐷𝑒 (4.9)

where Q = volumetric flow rate, m3/s; g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2; De = effective hydraulic diameter
(m) = Dh – 1.4 d; Dh = hydraulic diameter, m; d = average size of particle, m; Ae = effective orifice area
calculated from De, m2.
❖ Chang et al. (1991) developed an empirical equation for predicting flow of wheat, corn, sorghum and
soybean through vertical and horizontal orifices.
❖ They reported that the logarithmic plots of volume flow rate per unit orifice area (m3/h/cm2) for all orifices
shapes vs. hydraulic diameter were nearly linear for all tests.

𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴𝐷𝑛 (4.10)

where Q = volume flow rate through orifice, m3/h; A = orifice area, cm2; D = orifice hydraulic diameter, cm;
K = coefficient, h-1; n = coefficient, dimensionless.
❖ The discharge of wheat and paddy (rough rice) through horizontal rectangular opening was studied by
Bisht et al. (1989), and they proposed the following expressions of flow rates for wheat and paddy.

𝑄 = 0.499𝜌𝐵 𝐴1.4481 (for wheat) (4.11)

𝑄 = 0.578𝜌𝐵 𝐴1.4481 (for paddy) (4.12)

where Q = flow rate of material, kg/min; 𝜌𝐵 = bulk density of material, g/cc; A = area of opening, cm2.

❖ The above equations represent that the volume flow rates of wheat and paddy through opening of
rectangular shape are proportional to their bulk density and increase rapidly as the opening area
increases.
❖ Gregory et al. (1987) simulated the conditions of grain flow through circular orifice with that of flow of sand in an old
hour glass.
❖ They mentioned that the flow in the top section has a high degree of acceleration due to flow lines of high curvature.
❖ This section represents a transition from relatively low velocities at the outer wall to high vertical velocities as the flow
converges to the main core (Figure 4.6).
❖ Below the transition zone and just above the orifice, the core is relatively straight and has the size
and shape of the orifice.
❖ The material discharged is replaced by new material from above, but material on the outside of
the core does not move.
❖ The downward force causing flow can be represented as a function of c/s area of orifice,
depth of flow, bulk density of material and acceleration due to gravity.
Figure 4.6: Flow through
❖ While the upward force restricting flow can be expressed as a function of the shear stress of the circular orifice.

material in the boundary layer, which exists between the core flow and the non-flowing material.
❖ Dehpour et al. (1992) studied the flow of granular fertilizers and proposed an empirical expression for discharge rate.
❖ The discharge rate was expressed as a function of bulk density of material, orifice diameter, effective diameter of particle
and acceleration due to gravity.
❖ Using dimensional analysis, the following expression was proposed.
𝑏
𝐴
𝑄=𝑎 2 𝑃𝐷2.5 𝑔0.5 (4.13)
𝐷

where Q = discharge rate, A = area of opening, D = avg. particle size, P = weight density of particle, g = acceleration due to
gravity, a and b = empirical constants.

❖ The initial flow of fertilizers starts when an arch is developed at the centre of the Limitation of this equation:
hopper. Thereafter the material slides from the surface of the hopper towards its centre. No definite relationship between
a, b, D and grain properties
❖ Arching is associated with convergent flow of granular material, which is necessary for could be established.
the bulk material to lose its strength to flow easily.
 Particle Shape and Size
❖ The shape and size of the individual particles and their internal friction affect the flowability of a bulk product.
❖ Regularly shaped particles cannot pack together because of the void space around them. This property does not restrict the
free flowing movement of the particle with respect to surrounding particles.
❖ Irregularly shaped particles or a mixture of large and small particles can interlock, thus affecting the flowability or flow
pattern.
❖ Since the shape of food grains, oilseeds and other agricultural granular materials are generally irregular, the size of grains is
represented by their equivalent diameter. It is a diameter of a sphere having the same ratio of surface to volume as the actual
particle.
1Τ3
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐

where a, b, c are the maximum, intermediate and minimum mutually perpendicular dimensions, respectively.

❖ Sometimes the sphericity of particle is also necessary to know the shape.

❖ Grains and other agricultural granular materials have different size ranges of the same product. This may result in completely
different handling and conveying characteristics.
❖ The size distribution of a product can be determined by
o Mechanical sieving method
o Sedimentation method
o Optical microscopy
❖ The larger particles of a bulk grain generally do not obstruct the flow, but the small particles of the same material act as binding
agents as they can be fitted among larger particles.
❖ Therefore, the flow characteristics of a bulk product are mainly influenced by the proportion of small particles.
 Bulk Density and True Density
❖ For the design of storage and flow systems, knowledge of bulk and true density of product is necessary.
❖ The bulk density of a granular product is the density measured without the influence of any compression on the product.
It depends upon the particle density, its shape and orientation.
❖ The bulk density is also represented by hecto-litre weight. The weight of grain per hecto-litre is called hecto-litre weight.
❖ Hecto-litre weight is measured with the help of a kettle (capacity: 500 mL; inside dia: 8.5 cm; height: 8.8 cm), pan and one
wooden stroker. To measure the bulk density, product is filled in the pan and it is held over the kettle in such a way that the
opening of the pan is above the centre of the kettle and pouring occurred from a height of 15 cm above the kettle. The
product is poured into the kettle in regular stream. The wooden stroker is placed on the edge of the kettle and with a gentle
stroke, extra product is removed. The product of kettle is then weighed.

𝐻𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚 × 0.2, g

where, m = weight of the product, g.

❖ The true density represents the actual density of particle.
❖ It is determined by liquid (toluene) displacement method. Toluene is filled in a measuring cylinder and the volume is recorded.
Then, 100 g grain is put in the cylinder. The rise in volume of toluene in cylinder is noted. True density is the ratio of weight
of grain and the difference in volume of toluene.
❖ In case of grains, the bulk density is increased when the grains are compressed. During this process reorientation and
settling of particles take place. As a result air percolates out of the bulk mass and the volume decreases. The density of
compressed mass or bulk is called the ‘apparent density’.
❖ The value of apparent density is higher by 20% than the normal bulk density.
❖ In design of silo, the apparent density is taken into account. Because of compaction, the bottom layer or base layer of
silo has maximum density whereas the top layer has minimum density.
Angle of Repose
❖ The angle of repose is an indicator of the product’s ability to flow.
❖ Each product has its own natural angle of repose.
❖ The cohesive materials have larger angle of repose, whereas the lower angle of repose represents easier
flowability of the product. Table 4.2: Flow characteristics with respect to angle of
repose
❖ The natural angle of repose of a certain product Flow characteristics Angle of Repose, degree
is approximately equal to the maximum angle of Very free-flowing 25 – 30

internal friction of that product. Free flowing 30 – 38

Fair flowing 38 – 45

Cohesive or non-easy flowing 45 – 55

Very cohesive Beyond 55

Internal and External Friction
❖ In grain conveying systems, two types of friction can be identified,
1. Wall friction or external friction between grain mass of kernels and the wall of
bin or a surface, and
2. Friction of the kernels or grains against each other known as internal friction.
❖ Consider a sliding mass of grains kept in a container. The container has no bottom
and placed over a horizontal plane (Figure 4.7). If F is the horizontal force or pull
and N is the vertical force caused by the total weight of the grain, the coeff. of Figure 4.7: Sliding mass of grain on
friction μ can be given by, 𝐹 horizontal plane.
𝜇=
𝑁
❖ The coeff. of friction between granular materials is equal to the tangent of the angle of internal friction for that material.
❖ The sliding stress between the grain and the horizontal plane gives the frictional resistance per unit surface area of the grain
against the wall. This is called the angle of wall friction or external friction.
 Table 4.3: Angle of friction of various silo wall materials
❖ The frictional resistance depends upon Silo wall material Angle of wall friction, degree
1. Type and roughness of horizontal plane Oxidised sheet metal 38
2. Weight of the product Concrete 25
3. Humidity of product Smooth sheet metal 15
4. Humidity of the surface Stainless steel 8
Table 4.4: Angle of internal friction of some grains
❖ Higher values of angle of internal friction indicate that the material
Grains Angle of internal friction, degree is cohesive.
❖ The lower values of angle of internal friction are indicative of easy
Minimum Maximum
flowing products.
Wheat 24 26 Moisture Content
Maize 26 29 ❖ Flow characteristics of grains are affected by moisture content.
Barley 25 29 ❖ The moisture adhering at the surface may cause cohesiveness and
Rice 24 26 restrict easy flowing capacity of the material.
Carr’s Index and Hausner’s Ratio
❖ The compressibility and flowability of bulk materials can be estimated in the terms of Carr’s index (CI) and Hausner’s ratio
(HR), respectively.
❖ Olayemi et al. (2008) described a method of calculating CI and HR using the values of ρt and ρp of the concerned sample.
𝜌𝑡 − 𝜌𝑝
𝐶𝐼 % = × 100 (4.14)
𝜌𝑡
❖ An excellent flowability can be expected if CI is within 5 to 15%. A value of CI > 25% indicates poor flowability (Carr,
1965). 𝜌𝑡
𝐻𝑅 = (4.15)
𝜌𝑝
❖ The flowability of bulk granular materials can be defined by a range of HR values as given below:
o 1.0 < HR < 1.1 – free flowing powder
o 1.1 < HR < 1.25 – medium flowing powder where 𝜌𝑡 = tapped bulk density and
o 1.25 < HR < 1.40 – difficult flowing powder 𝜌𝑝 = poured bulk density
o HR > 1.4 – very difficult flowing powder
❖ Silos/bins are classified into two groups depending upon the relative
dimensions of the container. They are classified as, (1) deep bins and (2)
shallow bins.
❖ To what extent of relative dimensions of depth and diameter or width,
the structure behaves as a deep or shallow bin is decided from the concept
Figure 7.1: Shallow bin; 1. plane of rupture
of the plane of rupture.
❖ The plane of rupture is that surface down which a wedge of material
bounded by one wall face, the free surface, and the plane of rupture
would start sliding if bounding wall were to move.
❖ A bin whose relative dimensions are such that the plane of rupture meets
the grain surface before it strikes the opposite side is called ‘shallow bin’.
❖ A bin in which plane of rupture meets the opposite side before it emerges Figure 7.2: Deep bin; 1. plane of rupture
from the grain is called ‘deep bin’.
 90+𝜙
❖ If 𝜙 is the angle of repose of material, then the angle of rupture maybe taken as with the horizontal as per
2

Rankine theory.
❖ If 𝐿 and ℎ be the breadth and depth of the storage structure, then the structure can be taken to be shallow if:
90 + 𝜙
ℎ < 𝐿 tan (7.1)
2
The structure is deep if:
90 + 𝜙
ℎ > 𝐿 tan (7.2)
2
❖ Again, a grain bin is referred to as a shallow bin when the depth of grain is less than the equivalent diameter. In a
deep bin, depth of grain is equal to or greater than the equivalent diameter.
❖ The equivalent diameter is taken as four times the hydraulic radius of the bin.
❖ For deep bin 𝐻𝑑 ≥ 4𝑅; for shallow bin 𝐻𝑑 < 4𝑅 (7.3)
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑛
where 𝐻𝑑 = depth of grain, 𝑅 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑛

❖ As per the definition given by Issacson and Boyd for deep bin

𝐻𝑑 1
≥ 0.75 (7.4)
𝐷 𝜇𝐾

For shallow bin

𝐻𝑑 1
< 0.75 (7.5)
𝐷 𝜇𝐾

𝜎 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 1−sin 𝛼
where D = diameter of circular bin, μ = coefficient of friction, K = pressure ratio = 𝜎3 = 1+sin 𝛼 (α is
1 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

angle of internal friction).

Forces on Bins – the Rankine, Airy and Janssen Equations
❖ When granular materials are stored in bins, the forces which the material exert on the bin are much different from those exerted by
liquids.
❖ The equilibrium laws for grains are not well developed. It does not fit in the theory of elasticity, therefore, it is very difficult to directly
determine the pressure acting on the walls.
❖ The walls of the silos have to sustain the self weight and loads during construction.
❖ The silo walls are subjected to main forces or thrusts, (1) the horizontal thrust due to loading of material which tries to open up the silo
and (2) the vertical pressure which is generated due to loading of material on the walls.
❖ The speed of filling of granular material affects the stress development on silo:
o When the material is filled very rapidly without any compaction other than the compaction produced in the operation, the greatest
forces are obtained for the lateral thrust while the apparent density and the angle of internal friction of the material are at
minimum values.
o When the grain is filled at such a slow rate which provides every possibility of compaction, the greatest forces are obtained for the
vertical pressure. In this case the bulk density and the angle of internal friction of material are at maximum values.
❖ Bucklin et al. (1989) described that the magnitude of the loads imposed on the bin wall by stored material is
dependent upon both the bin geometry and properties of the stored material. These properties include:
o bin diameter
o bin wall configuration
o bulk density of stored material
o horizontal to vertical pressure ratio
o the coefficient of friction between the material and the bin wall.
❖ The grain pressure in bins were first calculated as being a semi-liquid of same density as the grains. The lateral
pressure was first calculated using the hydrostatic formula.
𝑃𝑙 = 𝑤ℎ (7.6)
where 𝑃𝑙 = lateral pressure exerted by the grain on the bin wall, 𝑤 = density of grain, and ℎ = depth of grain
from the top of the bin surface.
❖ The formula 7.6 has serious deficiencies because many structures buckled under the vertical load arising from
the friction of the grain walls.
❖ Formula 7.6 was modified to incorporate a factor ‘K’ known as Rankine’s earth pressure coefficient (pressure
ratio). The modified formula is known as Rankine formula.

1 − sin 𝛼
𝑃𝑙 = 𝐾𝑤ℎ = 𝑤ℎ (7.7)
1 + sin 𝛼
❖ The internal angle of friction (𝛼) of the grain was assumed by theoreticians and engineers, as equal to the
natural angle of repose (𝜙).

1 − sin 𝜙
𝑃𝑙 = 𝑤ℎ (7.8)
1 + sin 𝜙
❖ The Rankine formula is used for determination of pressure induced by granular materials against retaining
wall in shallow bins.
❖ This improvement did not consider the vertical load on the wall resulting from
friction effect.
❖ The Rankine theory with horizontal surface behind a vertical wall (Figure 7.3).
Consider an element of soil at depth ‘h’. The vertical element acting on this
element is ‘Pv’ and the horizontal pressure ‘Pl’ is active pressure at failure. Figure 7.3: Pressures on an element
of soil behind a vertical wall.
❖ For the Rankine theory Mohr circle maybe constructed (Figure 7.4). Pv and Pl
are the maximum and minimum principle stresses for which the Mohr circle is
constructed. 1
𝑄𝑃 2 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑃𝑙
sin 𝜙 = =
𝑂𝑃 1 𝑃 + 𝑃
2 𝑣 𝑙

𝑃𝑣 sin 𝜙 + 𝑃𝑙 sin 𝜙 = 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑃𝑙 ⟹ −𝑃𝑣 + 𝑃𝑣 sin 𝜙 = −𝑃𝑙 − 𝑃𝑙 sin 𝜙 Figure 7.3: Mohr circle for Rankine
Theory.
 or, −𝑃𝑣 1 − sin 𝜙 = −𝑃𝑙 1 + sin 𝜙
1 − sin 𝜙 𝜙
or, 𝑃𝑙 = 𝑃𝑣 = 𝐾𝑃𝑣 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45 − 𝑃
1 + sin 𝜙 2 𝑣
❖ Airy developed a theory for pressure induced by granular materials against retaining wall or in shallow bins.
❖ The lateral pressure exerted by grains in a shallow bin can be given by Airy equation:
2
1
𝑃𝑙 = 𝑤ℎ (7.9)
𝜇 𝜇 + 𝜇′ + 1 + 𝜇2

where 𝑤 = grain bulk density; ℎ = depth of grain to point under consideration, 𝜇 = coefficient of friction of
grain on grain = tan 𝜙, 𝜙 is angle of internal friction, 𝜇′ = tan 𝜙 ′ , 𝜙 ′ is the angle of wall friction.
❖ Janssen (1895) took into account the friction between the grain and bin wall and proposed the following
equation for ‘deep bins’.
𝑤𝑅 𝐾𝜇′ ℎ
𝑃𝑙 = ′ 1 − 𝑒 𝑅 − (7.10)
𝜇
where 𝑤 = grain bulk density; ℎ = depth of grain to point under consideration, 𝜇 = coefficient of friction of
grain on the wall = tan 𝜙 ′ , 𝜙 ′ is angle of the wall friction, 𝑅 = hydraulic radius.

❖ The Janssen formula is widely used and bin’s design is safe because of a higher safety factor. Janssen assumed
that K was a constant throughout the grain mass.
❖ The maximum lateral pressure of a deep bin can be given by the following expression:

𝑤𝑅
𝑃𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (7.11)
𝜇′
Problem 7.1: Wheat weighing 900 kg/m3 is loaded in a circular concrete silo of 3 m internal diameter and a clear
height of 8 m. The angle of friction for wheat is 25° and that for wheat and concrete is 24°. Applying Airy theory,
calculate the maximum lateral pressure at the bottom of the bin section.
Solution: 𝑤 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , h = 8 m, 𝜙 = 25°, 𝜙 ′ = 24°
𝜇 = tan 𝜙 = 0.466, 𝜇′ = tan 𝜙 ′ = 0.445
2 2
1 1
𝑃𝑙 = 𝑤ℎ = 900 × 8 = 2338.7 kg/m2
𝜇 𝜇+𝜇′ + 1+𝜇2 0.466 0.466+0.445 + 1+0.4662
Problem 7.2: A silo, 15.24 m high and 1.83 m diameter, is filled with grain having a bulk density of 635 kg/m3.
The pressure ratio and coefficient of friction between grain and wall of the bin are 0.333 and 0.5, respectively.
Calculate the vertical pressure developed at the base of the silo.
Solution: h = 15.24 m, D = 1.83 m, w = 635 kg/m3, K = 0.333, 𝜇′ = 0.5
R = D/4 = 0.46 m
𝐾𝜇′ ℎ 0.333×0.5×15.24
𝑤𝑅 635×0.46 −
𝑃𝑙 = 1− 𝑒− 𝑅 = 1−𝑒 0.46 = 581.16 kg/m2
𝜇′ 0.5

𝑃𝑙 = 𝐾𝑃𝑣 ⟹ 𝑃𝑣 = 1746.54 kg/m2

Problem 7.3: In a deep vertical silo of 4 m diameter, calculate maximum lateral pressure generated if the paddy
grain having bulk density of 600 kg/m3 stored in it. Coefficient of friction between grain and wall may be taken as
0.30.
Solution:
𝑤𝑅 600×1
𝑃𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2000 kg/m2
𝜇′ 0.30
Problem 7.4: Angle of internal friction for rice grain is 27°, bulk density of rice at 14% moisture content is 833
kg/m3 and coefficient of friction between rice and concrete wall is 0.5. For a silo of 5 m diameter and 20 m height,
what will be the ratio between the lateral pressure at the bottom of the silo obtained by Rankine and Janssen
formulae? 1 − sin 𝜙
𝐾=
Solution: 1 + sin 𝜙 Janssen
Rankine
1−sin 𝜙 𝐾𝜇′ ℎ
𝑃𝑙 = 𝑤ℎ = 𝑃𝑙 =
𝑤𝑅
1− 𝑒− 𝑅 =
833×1.25 ൣ
1 −
1+sin 𝜙
𝜇′ 0.5
833 × 20 × 0.3755×0.5×20
𝑒
− 1.25 ൧ = 1979.23 kg/m2
0.3755 = 6255.83
kg/m2

𝑃𝑙 (𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒)
= 3.16
𝑃𝑙 (𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛)
Problem 7.5: A cylindrical grain storage bin has internal diameter of 5 m and is 20 m deep. It is completely filled
with paddy weighing 600 kg/m3. The angle of internal friction for paddy can be taken as 35° while the angle of
internal friction for paddy and bin wall is 30°. The ratio of horizontal and vertical pressure intensity, K, is 0.4.
Calculate the lateral pressure intensity at 2 m interval.
Solution: