CAPE Communication Studies

COMPREHENSION - OVERVIEW

Comprehension
(a) Levels: literal, interpretive, analytical, application, synthesis, evaluation.
(b) Modes:
(i)  efferent – focus on informative statements;
(ii)  aesthetic – focus on expressive/empathetic language; listening and reading;
(iii)  critical – focus on identification, discrimination and evaluation of a writer’s
purpose, techniques, ideas

LEVELS OF COMPREHENSION

The way that writers think, and readers make sense of the information, can be presented as a
hierarchy. This is known as the six levels of comprehension. We begin at the lowest literal
level, and as we gain a greater understanding we reach the highest level, referred to as
evaluation. At each stage, we are able to make informed judgments from our understanding.
Below are the six levels of comprehension:

Literal
Understanding Knowledge-based information, what is stated.

Carnival is over and I am tired and weak,

My head is spinning and I am now a freak
Come Ash Wednesday and free me from this madness
Restore me to my place of gladness.

In the poem, the poet expresses the negative impact of carnival on her life. This is the literal
meaning. Beyond this, there is an implicit religious plea to be free of carnival.

Interpretive
Understanding what is implied or meant, rather than what is actually stated.
I quickened my footsteps when I saw him coming, I could feel his eyes on me. My movement
was too slow.
In this sentence the literal actions of the speaker allow us to deduce that the character is
trying to flee from the other person, although it is not stated explicitly.

Analysis
Drawing conclusions and summaries from information
In order to perform the operation several steps had to be taken. The nurses had to ensure that
all of the equipment was sterilised. It was also important to remove unwanted hairs from the
patient as these could cause infections. The last procedure was to dress the patient in the
appropriate apparel.
Notice that the procedure is broken down into smaller parts, which can now be illustrated
using various methods.

Application - Comparing a situation to another.

Synthesis - Integrating ideas or putting oneself in situation

Evaluation - Deducing conclusions from situation

Application, Synthesis and Evaluation

When Christopher Columbus came to the West Indies, his main agenda was to seek wealth
and develop trade routes for the Spanish empire. During his voyage in 1492, he landed in the
Bahamas and called it San Salvador. In his other voyages, he landed on the rest of the
Caribbean and continued to explore and harness the resources to develop Spain. This trend
continued for many years with the same pattern and opened up the new world to further
exploits.
From this extract, you could:
 apply and compare what the Spaniards did in the Bahamas to other scenarios
(application)
 assess the purpose of his agenda to the benefit or demise of the Caribbean
people, or express your opinion on the role of the Spaniards in the West Indies
(evaluation).
 dramatize this episode in a skit (synthesis)
 Literal Interpretive Analysis Application Synthesis Evaluation

Name Describe Compare Solve Predict Assess

Identify Summarise Contrast Illustrate Compose Criticise

Outline Identify Distinguish Demonstrate Design Support

RecaIl Explain Explain Use Assess Compare

State Express Conclude Dramatize Create Defend

Write Differentiate Criticise Interpret Propose Conclude

Select Review Generalise Report Construct Judge

List Discuss Determine Review Invent Determine

Words associated with each level

MODES OF COMPREHENSION

The purpose of reading

As you read, you attempt to make sense of the information in front of you, in order to get a
deeper understanding of the message that the writer is trying to convey. When you read, you
are using the different levels of comprehension. These include: interpretation, integration,
analysis and evaluation.
Sometimes you will find yourselves reading a variety of materials for different purposes such
as billboards, text messages or teacher's notes. For example, at school you may have to read a
novel:

 for pleasure
 for information to answer questions in class
 to write a critical report for a book review.

As a reader, you use a variety of comprehension strategies to understand what you're reading.
The three major modes of comprehension are:

1. Efferent mode - reading to the information or main points that support the meaning
of the text
2. Aesthetic mode - reading and focusing on the expressive and affective language in
the text, and to form an opinion.
3. Critical mode - reading to engage with the text in debate, discussion and analysis of
the author's intentions.

Writing Genres

A literary genre refers to a category into which a literary work is grouped, based on the {form
and technique of writing. There are three major types of writing that you can choose from to
communicate your ideas or goals.

 Narrative / Descriptive - for example, short stories, novels, journal entries;

 Expository - for example, explanations, instructions, directions;
 Argumentative /persuasive - for example, opinion pieces, advertisements, speeches.

Sub-types of writing:

 argumentative/persuasive writing
 reflective writing.
Narrative writing - this essay is an account of events or experiences that are imagined or
real. It is used to tell a story or to entertain. It can take the form of a short story, novel or a
historical event.

Descriptive writing - this type of essay describes a person, object or situation using the five
senses. It is done vividly and clearly, the reader can be a part of the experience.

Expository writing - this type of essay has several uses. It can define a term, be used to

inform, provide detailed description of how something works or provide instructions. It gives
both information and explanation at the same time. With this type of writing it is better to
assume that the reader knows nothing about the topic in order to provide the necessary
details. The essay can take the form of:

 an account
 comparison
 cause/effect
 problem/solution
 a process
 a factual report
 a summary of idea

Argumentative/persuasive writing - this is a form of expository writing that convinces the

audience or the reader that the writer's point of view is valid. It embodies examples, evidence
and emotional appeal.

Reflective writing - this is a type of writing that embodies elements of both descriptive and
narrative. This type of writing is used to share thoughts on an event or scenario that is
significant. This can take the form of, for example, a letter or a diary.

Narrative and descriptive writing

Narrative and descriptive writing belong to the same category of creative writing which
includes stories, poetry, journals etc. Narrative writing is focused on telling a story by
evoking emotions with imagery; descriptive writing describes a person, object or event in
detail so as to allow the reader to experience it.
In narrative writing, the goal is to create an interesting plot to engage the reader. Here the
emphasis is on concrete details and clear images. There is also the emphasis to induce
empathy. For example: 'The rain fell and blew a strong breeze that whipped my body and
gave me a chill.'

In descriptive writing, the focus is on the details of the event, rather than moving the plot
forward. This is done with the use of details and the incorporation of the senses.
For example the writer would not just say: 'She moved towards her opponent.'
Rather, they might say:
'With bold, unforgiving eyes and a heart that had become so cold, she took bold steps
towards her opponent.'

Forms of narrative and descriptive writing

Narrative and descriptive writing can take many forms, including:
o short story
o novel/novella
o poetry
o myth/fable/legend/folktale/play/skit
o realistic fiction
o biography/autobiography
o essay

Features of narrative and descriptive writing

Here are some characteristics of narrative and descriptive writing. You will note that while
narrative writing is developmental with a distinct introduction, body and conclusion, the goal
of descriptive writing is to leave images in the reader's mind.

Features of narrative writing Features of descriptive writing

tells a story or event objective - based on fact and scientific

conveys a point of view (first, second, third

 writing
person narrative)
subjective - based on creative writing
(personaI opinion, intuition and emotions)

figurative language and imagery figurative language and imagery

character development and dialogue uses five senses - sight, smell taste, touch,
hearing

chronological: beginning/middle - Logical:

climax/conclusion

introduction -to get readers’ attention

body - to convey thoughts and feelings,

sensory details

conclusion - to emphasise impressions you

are trying to create

based on conflict, action, and use of 'action words' - verbs use of adjectives
problem/resolution
use of transition words - below, above,
suddenly, short[y, during etc.

ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

The purpose of argumentative writing

We use arguments in our everyday lives. We debate about personal or academic subjects of
interest and we do so with emotion, elevated voices, gestures and ideas that may or may not
be based on truth. Arguments are based on the intention to persuade the listener that what we
are presenting is the truth and to challenge the opposing ideas. The goal is to convince the
audience of your points of view with rational arguments, supported judgments, your values
and beliefs, and the use of emotional language. It is important to be aware that writers use
arguments and persuasive language for their own purposes, and that the author’s purpose may
therefore be biased.

Arguments should be based on facts. We engage in 'fallacy' when we do not have enough
knowledge about a subject. This should be avoided since it can lead to uninformed
judgements.

Argumentative or persuasive writing is used in several forms of writing.

These include:
o speeches (e.g. political, to present social issues etc.)
o advertisements
o critical essays (e.g. the analytical section in your portfolio)
o news
o letters (e.g. to the editor, to convince a friend, recommendations etc.

In addition to the use of evidence and emotional appeal, strong arguments must be credible
and reliable. In other words they can be proven or verified.

For an argument or persuasive essay to be considered balanced, the following criteria should
feature:

 A thesis statement that presents your point of view and informs the entire argument.
(Introduction).
 An analysis that explores the thesis statement and grounds it in evidence. It also
observes and refutes counter arguments using arguments that support your point of
view. (Body)
  A summary that reinforces the main statement or summarises your ideas and makes
recommendations in some instances. (Conclusion)

Some techniques used in persuasive writing:

 Evidence - supporting facts to confirm the claims that you make 'E.g. In today’s
world, males are becoming more fashion conscious.’ According to research recently
conducted by Caribbean Fashion magazine, 67% of Caribbean men between the ages
of 18 and 55 spend 30% of their salary on fashionable clothing.
 Sources of authority - claims made by people who are experts in the topic. E.g. The
University of the West Indies found that 45% of the students at the University are
overweight due to poor eating habits.
 Scientific appeal - use of charts, percentages and researched data that informs a topic.
E.g. Leading research by Bowell University informs the public to be conscious of
their general wellbeing, since 28% of the population in any given district can access
medication without a prescription.
 Use of direct or personal appeal - appeal to needs of the audience so they identify
with the topic. E.g. The environment is all of our business.'
 Emotional appeal - use of emotive language to involve the audience. 'How many more
children must go hungry when you can make a difference!'
 Analogy - drawing a link between similar issues so as to reinforce your points. E.g.

Students are like flowers rather than sponges. The art of teaching is not to pour your
knowledge into them but to give them time to open and bloom.
 Contrast - explaining how issues are the same or different so as to reinforce your
points. E.g. Coleridge and Wordsworth both dealt with the theme of nature but in
different way.
 Use of examples - drawing reference to scenarios to reinforce your points. E.g.

Advertisements by social media networks are now responsible for 20% of leading
sales by businesses.
  Use of rhetorical questions - a question asked by the speaker that requires no answer

from the audience. The response is unanimously shared. E.g. Isn't it our obligation to
save our environment!
 Repetition - repeating the point of view or idea or reinforcement. E.g. 'Hunger and

strife must end.

You also need to recognise the language used in persuasive writing, especially by advertisers.
Here are a few to consider:
 exaggeration
 repetition,
 rhymes, songs
 catchy words
 pun on words
 emotional words
 exclamations
 questions

FALLACIES
A fallacy is a misconception resulting from incorrect reasoning. It is an argument which
seems to be correct, but contains at least one error, which is sometimes difficult to find and,
as a result, produces an incorrect result or conclusion. Fallacies most often occur in
persuasive reasoning where inductive reasoning is being used. Inductive reasoning is a
conclusion which is often based on observations and specific experiences. In the absence of
mathematical or scientific evidence, there are several errors which may occur in the
reasoning.
 There are three appeals that generally guide persuasion. They are the appeal to logic
(logos), the appeal to the emotions (pathos) and the appeal based on the
credibility/authority of the speaker (ethos). Each appeal runs the risk of containing a
fallacy.

FALLACIES AFFECTING CONTENT AND LOGIC (LOGOS)

1.Non sequitur (‘It does not follow’) The writer’s/speaker’s conclusion does not
logically follow, based on the facts presented. This usually occurs because one step in
the argument has been omitted or is implied. Example: Sanjay is from a famous
cricketing family, so he will be a world-class cricketer in the future.

2. BEGGING THE QUESTION

The writer/speaker restates a claim, giving the impression that by simply doing so it
proves the argument presented. Example: Because violent movies are not fit for public
viewing, the violent movie Kill Them All should be banned in this city.

3. RED HERRING
The writer/speaker introduces an irrelevant point to divert the readers’/listeners’
attention from the main/relevant issue.
Example: Before you can talk about greater productivity in this country, Mr Prime
Minister, you need to deal with the boatloads of Haitian refugees that have landed on
our shores.

4. POST HOC (‘AFTER THIS/THEREFORE, BECAUSE OF THIS’)

This is based on the erroneous assumption that a causal (cause and effect) relationship
exists between two things simply because one event follows another in time. The
second event is thought to be caused by the first which preceded it.
Example: Since the track team got new outfits, there has been a transformation. They
got the new gear in September and for the whole term, they have never lost a single
track meet.

5. EITHER/OR SYNDROME
An attempt to convince the reader/listener that there are only two ways of viewing or
understanding an issue – one right and one wrong – when there are, in fact, other
possibilities.
Example: Yes, daddy, I admit that this is the most expensive dress in the store, but you
didn’t expect me to go to the ball looking like a nobody?

6. STRAW MAN
The writer/speaker selects the opposition’s weakest or most insignificant point to
argue against, in order to divert attention from the real issues.
 Example: I won’t even waste time talking about the jobs my opponent claims he has
created in this city. I don’t accept his apology for being late for this meeting and you
should not. A good leader is never late.

FALLACIES INVOLVING EMOTIONAL PERSUASION (PATHOS)

1. BANDWAGON APPEAL
The writer/speaker attempts to validate a point by suggesting or giving the impression
that everyone believes in it; the idea is acceptable and sound because it enjoys
widespread currency.
Example: Don’t tell me you don’t have a pair of the new low-rider jeans. Everybody
who is anybody is wearing them now. I have three pairs, my dear.

2. SNOB APPEAL
The writer/speaker attempts to convince the audience that by accepting a claim or
undertaking an action s/he will be higher or better than others around. This is to
pander to people’s sense of pride and desire to be considered better than others.
Example: A man of your position and good looks could never want to drive a Corolla
when a BMW will put you in the right circle, where you belong.

3. ARGUMENT AD POPULUM (‘TO THE PEOPLE’)

The writer/speaker links the claim or argument to certain words or objects that are
known to have a strong emotional reaction with the audience. In so doing, he/she
hopes to influence the audience’s opinions and actions.
Example: If you are a God-fearing and patriotic Jamaican, you cannot support that
party with a clear conscience.

4. PITY APPEAL
The writer/speaker tries to deflect attention from the relevant issues in the argument
by inciting pity for him/herself.
Example: I deserve to keep my job. I need to have a job to support my wife and nine
children. It’s not my fault that the company is overstaffed. They say they are losing
money. I don’t know about that. I have school fees to pay and food to put on the table.

FALLACIES INVOLVING CREDIBILITY (ETHOS)

 1. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY
This is reference to expert knowledge to support an argument without sufficient
acknowledgement that an authority on one subject may be unreliable on another, and
that a man who is usually unreliable may occasionally be right. In addition, an
expert’s authority becomes suspect in a case where he/she has personal reasons for
not telling the truth.
Example: I am a parent for 10 years now and, believe me, I know when children are
lying.

2. ARGUMENT AD HOMINEN (‘TO THE MAN’)

The writer/speaker attacks the opponent’s character rather than the opponent’s
argument. This is an attempt to discredit the speaker and, by so doing, deflect
attention from the argument.
Example: Be honest with me, how can I take Constable Ralph’s instructions seriously
when he looks and talks like Charlie Chaplin?

Hasty Generalization
Another very common fallacy which affects reasoning is the Hasty Generalization.
This occurs when the writer/speaker draws a conclusion based on insufficient
evidence.
Example: My chain was stolen by a Jamaican; therefore, all Jamaicans are thieves.

Statistical Fallacy
A misuse of statistics occurs when a statistical argument asserts a falsehood. In some
cases, the misuse may be accidental. In others, it is purposeful and for the gain of the
perpetrator. When the statistical reason involved is false or misapplied, this
constitutes a statistical fallacy.

Sometimes writers or speakers deliberately use techniques that mask their meanings and
which are meant to affect the readers’/listeners’ ability to critically analyse the message.
Three common examples of this form of manipulation are:
1. VAGUENESS
A writer/speaker uses terms which have not been defined in such a way as to give the
impression that they have universally acceptable meanings.
 Example: As leader of this gang, I will do my patriotic and humane duty in providing
for the needs of my followers.

2. EQUIVOCATION
Words can reasonably have two or more distinct interpretations. Hence, a
writer/speaker may start using a word in one sense and then shift to another
interpretation in the same argument/discussion.
Example: To be in the right class means social mobility. Cedrice is in the right class
for her age. Therefore, Cedrice is socially mobile.
.
3. OBSCURATION
This is the use of technical or specialised jargon to obscure or hide the meaning of a
message.
Example: The present programme of rationalisation and termination within the health
sector is an undeniable consequence of the structural adjustment imperatives dictated
by the effects of globalisation.
This is another way of saying that the firing of doctors and nurses is a result of
external economic forces.

EXPOSITIORY WRITING
Expositions are used in our daily lives to answer the questions to many issues that confront
us. An exposition involves the questions Who! What! Why! When! Where! and How!
Expository writing serves several functions:
1. To explain, for example, you may want to explain how a computer works.
2. To describe, for example, you may have to describe the process of planting corn.
3. To inform, for example, you want to inform the public about the dangers of a
hurricane.
4. To present facts or ideas, for example, you may want to present some factual
information on the increase of the incidence of bullying at your school.
While expository writing is objective in nature and seeks to present facts, you can include an
opinion based on the issue of discussion and even present a recommendation for the analysis
of a topic. It is also important to consider the following before you begin to write:
  Collect the information to inform your writing via research and interviews.
 Ask yourself what the purpose of your writing is: is it to inform, explain, describe?
 Who is the target audience?
 Is it for a newspaper, a webpage or a magazine reader?
 Draft a plan for your essay to organise your ideas coherently.
 Consider the style of writing to be used. Also consider the narrative voice to be used
{first or third person)

Types of Expository Writing

There are five main types of Expository writing.

1. Process
This type of expository writing includes general instructions or directions, reports,
biographies and autobiographies, plans and processes. The information provided is logical
and carefully sequenced and should be presented clearly so that it is easy to follow or

understand. It is important to show the relationship between the various aspects of the process

by using connecting words such as 'firstly', 'however', 'as'.

This type of writing takes two forms:
 to show how something works

 to understand a process.

For example: Turning on a computer involves several stages. First, you have to turn

on the button on the CPU and then on the monitor; the computer will start. When your
computer is 'booted up', a dialogue box will appear on the screen and cue you to type
in your username and password. Do so. When you have done this, click the 'enter'
button on the keyboard and you are ready to access your programmes to begin.

Checklist
 Is the purpose of the instruction stated?
 Are the instructions sequenced?
 Does the writer address the audience?
 Are the ideas connected via connecting words?
2. Cause and effect

This type of essay aims to explain the causes (reasons) or the effects (results) of an event or

situation. Sometimes there may be many causes for an event or situation. For example, What
are the causes of the misuse of the Internet by teenagers! At other times there may be many
effects of an event or situation. For example: What are the effects of the misuse of the Internet
among teenagers!

3. Compare and contrast

This type of expository essay compares people, places, events/ situations or things. There are
three different ways it can be approached:
 The comparative essay explores the similarities between two or more things.

 The contrast essay highlights differences between two or more things.

 The compare and contrast explores both similarities and differences between two or
more things.

4. Classification

This type of essay breaks a subject down into categories for the purpose of analysis. The aim

of the essay is to organise or sort so as to highlight similar characteristics within the subject.
you should:

 Include in the thesis statement the topic and how it is going to be classified. E.g.

Tourists in the Caribbean can enjoy outdoor activities such as bird-watching, fishing,
sun-bathing and. water sports.

 State the author's purpose. E.g. explain why the classification matters to the reader.

 Describe each category, giving each one its own paragraph

 Support each category with an example or illustration.

 Explore the similarities and differences of each category where necessary. \

 Use transition words such as: the first category, the second category
5. Problem and solution

This essay identifies a problem and provides a solution, along with the argument for the

proposed solution. For example, the problem might be homelessness, climate change or road

fatalities due to use of cell phones, whilst driving. You should:

 Describe the problem.

 Propose the best possible solutions, supported with examples and details.

 Provide arguments for the solution.

 Explain why one solution is better when compared to others.

 Use an analytical tone.