Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Functions

Organismal Biology
 The study of structure, function, ecology and evolution at the level of the organism; plays a
central role in answering conceptual questions about ecology and evolution as they connect the
fields of comparative genomics, evolutionary development and phylogenetics

Reproduction
2 modes of reproduction
Asexual reproduction
 Mode of reproduction that does not involve the Use of gametes or sex cells.
sexual reproduction
 Mode of reproduction that involves the use of gametes or sex cells.

Some terms you may already be familiar with

Cloning - a technique scientist use to make exact genetic copies of living things. Genes,
cells, tissues, and even whole animals can all be cloned

gametes - are an organisms reproductive cells. Also referred to as sex cells

female gamete - egg cell or ova male gamete - sperm

4 types of asexual reproduction

Fission - Type of sexual reproduction involving the division of body into two or more equal parts

FRAGMENTATION - Type of Asexual reproduction where the body breaks into two or more parts, with
each fragment capable of becoming a complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is usually
followed by regeneration where the missing parts are produced. For example, a lost arm of the sea star
may be generated by mitotic cell divisions.
budding - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud) from it's
parent, develops organs like those of parent then detaches itself

Sporulation - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual form from an aggregation of cells
surrounded by a resistant capsule or spore which late on germinates

Development- involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation, subsequent stages in one's life span.
Development is terminated by death

6 stages of development
1. Gametogenesis - Stage of development that yields haploid gametes

2. Fertilization - Stage of development that results in a unicellular diploid Zygote

3. Cleavage - Stage of development involving a series of mitotic divisions to produce a
multicellular blastula from a unicellular zygote
4. Gastrulation - Stage of development involving morphogenetic movements of the cells to
produce a gastrula with distinct germ cell layers; in vertebrates, this will result in three layers:
the outermost ectoderm; the inner endoderm, and the middle layer, the mesoderm
5. Organogenesis - Stage of development where the different germ layers differentiate into
specific organ systems
6. Growth - Stage of development characterized by an increase in size of an individual
2 types of sexual reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction -Type of sexual reproduction involving the union of gametes from two
genetically different parents
2. Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female reproductive tissues. In animals' "self-
fertilization" is not common. In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to donate sperms in
order to fertilize the oocytes in its body.

REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY OF HUMAN MALE AND

FEMALE
GONADS – The organ that produces the gametes

female reproductive anatomy

OVARIES –a female gonads are pair of ovaries. Each ovary is packed with follicles, each consisting of
an oocyte, a partially developed eggs, surrounded by Support cells. Eading

Oviducts & Uterus

Oviduct- or fallopian tube, extends from the uterus toward da funnel-like opening at each ovary. Upon
ovulation, cilia on the opening lining of the oviduct help collect the egg by drawing from the body cavity
into the oviduct.
Uterus - also known as womb. Thick, muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy to
accommodate a 4kg fetus.
ENDOMENTRIUM – inner lining of the uterus, richly supplied with blood vesels
CERVIX – neck of the uterus, Opens into the vagina. Allows menstrual blood from the uterus to vagina
& direct sperms into the uterus

Vagina & vulva

Vagina - muscular but elastic chamber that is the site for insertion of the penis and deposition of sperm
during copulation. Also serves as the birth canal through which a baby is born, opens to the outside of
the vulva.
Vulva - collective term for the external female genitalia
Labia Majora - a pair of thick fatty ridges, enclose and protect the rest of the vulva. Labia Minora the
vaginal opening and the separate opening of the urethra are located with a cavity bordered by a pair of
slender skin folds.
Labia MINORA- VAGINAL OPENING AND THE SEPARATE OPENING OF THE URETHRA
Hymen - a thin piece of tissue, covers the vaginal opening in humans at birth.
Clitoris - located at the top of labia minora.
Vestibular Gland - secrete lubricating mucus.

male reproductive anatomy

Testes - a male gonads, produce sperm in a highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.
Scrotum - a fold of the body wall. Hangs outside the body because it needs to maintain a slightly lower
temperature than the rest of the body.
Ducts

Epididymis - from seminiferous tubules of a testis, the sperm pass into the coiled duct of an epididymis.
It takes 3 weeks for sperm to travel the 6m length of this duct.
Vas Deferens - a muscular duct, extends around behind the urinary bladder, where it joins a duct from
seminal vesicle, forming a short ejaculatory duct.
Urethra - the outlet tube for both excretory system and the reproductive system. Urethra runs through
the penis and open to the outside at the tip of the penis.

How do Plants Reproduce?

Plants spread across the land by air, water and even animals

Asexual Reproduction
Involves the creation of cloned offspring from a parent organism
 Asexual reproduction in plants, flowers play a major role in sexual reproduction as it houses the
structures for this process.
sexual Reproduction
Involves the union of gametes (egg cell and sperm cell) through fertilization
 Parts of a flower

 Stigma  Pistil
 Pollen tube  Pedicel
 Stamen  Sepal
 Petal  Ovule
 Pedicel  Receptacle

Stamen and carpel

 The stamen is the male reproductive organ which produces the
pollen (the pollen contains the sperm cell) The carpels are
female reproductive structures that produce egg cells and
protect a developing baby plant, or embryo.

Sepals
 Part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals
typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support
for the petals when in bloom. These organs are held by a structure called a
receptacle

Petals
 Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts
of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped
to attract pollinators

Stigma
 Is the sticky end of the carpel where pollen is trapped during the
process of pollination

Style
 The style is a slender neck where the sperm cell from the pollen can
travel to the base of the carpel called the ovary
Anther
 The anther is a key structure in the reproduction of flowering
plants. It sits a top the filament of the male structure known as the
stamen. It produces the male sex cells, stores them, and provides a
place for them to stay until the time is right for them to be
dispersed
Filament
 The filament supports the anther, which is where the pollen
develops. The word filament is from the Latin word filum, which
means “thread” Filament, in fact, can be a synonym for thread

Ovary
 The part of the female reproductive organ of the flower or
gynoecium. Specifically, it is the part of pistil which holds the
ovule(s) and is located above or below or at the point of
connection with the base of the petals
and sepals.
ovule
 The ovule is the organ that forms the seeds of flowering plants. It is
born in the ovary of the flower and consists of nucellus protected by
integuments, precursors of embryo/endosperm, and seed coat,
respectively.

Pollination
The process of transferring pollen from an anther to a stigma
 There are various ways in which pollination occurs whether through
 Biotic (80%)
 Abiotic-Wind (98%) and water (2%) are there main agents

Self Pollination Vs Cross Pollination

Monoecious or dioecious Development

 Dioecious plants are either male or female. Each individual plant, when it produces
reproductive structures, produces only male or female structures.
 Monoecious plants are both male and female. in gymnosperms, this means that the plant
bears both male and female reproductive structures

Different Types of Reproductive Cycle in Plants

Gametophyte The gametophyte is the sexual phase in the life cycle of plants and algae. It develops sex
organs that produce gametes, haploid sex cells that participate in fertilization to form a
diploid zygote which has a double set of chromosomes.
Sporophyte Sporophyte is a diploid, multicellular spore-producing phase in the life cycle of the plant
body which exhibits alternation of generations. This structure starts from a diploid zygote, and this
produces haploid spores by means of meiotic division. This sporophyte phase is the dominant phase in
many vascular plants