THERMOGRAPHY

TESTING

Dr.Satish.N
Professor & PG Coordinator
Bangalore Institute of Technology
Thermography Testing

▪ Introduction: Thermographic non-destructive testing is also known as thermal inspection,

thermography, thermal imaging, thermal wave imaging and infrared thermography testing.
▪ It was first developed for military purposes in the late 1950s and 1960s.
▪ It involves the measurement or mapping of surface temperatures as heat flows to and from
and/or through an object.
▪ This NDT method is useful in locating hot spots, such as a bearing that is wearing out and starting
to heat up due to an increase in friction.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

▪ This testing method is based on the fact that most components in a system show an increase in
temperature when malfunctioning or due to variation in temperature difference at the sub
surface detects. This temperature differences observed on the investigated surface during
inspection will be monitored by an infrared camera.
▪ Basically:
▪ Bodies give out Infrared radiations.
▪ The infrared energy is dependent on the absolute surface temperature.
▪ The infrared energy is dependent on the surface emissivity.
▪ Semiconductors are used to measure the infrared energy

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

▪ The electromagnet spectrum includes X-rays, ultrasonic infrared (IR) and radio. They are all
emitted in the form of a wave and travel at the speed of light. The only difference between them
is their wavelengths which are related to frequency.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

▪ Infrared Range within the Electromagnetic Spectrum Infrared radiation is that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that is immediately adjacent to the red light approximate 760 nm on
the long wave side of the visible spectrum and extends to a wavelength of approximate 1 mm.
This range of wavelength corresponds to a frequency range of approximately 430 THz down to
300 GHz.

▪ In this respect, the wavelength range of upto approximate 20 um is of importance to identify

temperature distribution due to cracks and sub-surface defects.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Characteristics of Infrared

Some of the important characteristics of infrared are as follows:

▪ It is not visible as its wavelength is larger than the visible light.
▪ It is radiated naturally from all objects having the temperature of absolute 0°K or higher,
hence it is applicable to all kinds of field.
▪ It has characteristics of heating an object, hence it is sometime called as "heat ray".
▪ It is a kind of electromagnetic wave and it can travel through vacuum.
▪ Infrared energy and temperature of an object are co-related, therefore temperature
distribution can be observed.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

▪ Principle of Thermography: Principle of thermography is based on the physical phenomenon that

any body of a temperature above absolute zero (-273.15 °C) emits electromagnetic radiation.
▪ The emitted infrared energy is a function of the object's temperature and its relative efficiency of
thermal radiation, known as emissivity.
▪ Temperature variations in the subject are then displayed as shades of grey or can be converted
into pseudo-colour image. Temperature variations as small as 0.1°C can be detected.

Heated object radiates electromagnetic

energy. The amount of energy is related to
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of heat radiated by a real the object temperature. The energy from
object at a given temperature to the heat that would have heated object is radiated at different levels
been radiated by an ideal black body at the same across the electromagnetic spectrum. In
temperature. most industrial applications it is the energy
radiated at infrared wavelengths which is
used to determine the object temperature.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

▪ The two main fields of application are:

▪ to look at the heat distribution in hot specimens such as furnace walls, insulated structures,
electronic circuits, etc in steady state – generally known as passive thermography

▪ to provide a pulsed source of heat on one side of a specimen and examine the other side for
non-uniformities in infrared emission which would correspond to internal in homogeneities
or large flaws – generally known as active thermography

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Basic Principle of Thermography Testing

▪ The principle of infrared

thermography testing is based
on the physical phenomenon
that any body of a
temperature above absolute
zero (-273.15°C) emits
electromagnetic radiation.
There is a clear correlation
between the surface radiation
of a body and the intensity
and spectral composition of
its emitted radiation.

▪ By determining its radiation

intensity the temperature of
an object can be determined
in a non-contact way. Figure Thermography testing uses an infrared camera containing large number of
illustrates the principle of infrared sensors which can detect, and measure small temperature differences.
thermography testing. The image showing the temperature differences can be processed and
displayed as a colour or grey scale map.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Advantages of Thermography Testing

Some of the advantages of thermography testing are as follows:

▪ This technique is highly effective and very easy to use.
▪ Compared to many other inspection techniques, it is fast and it can create a thermal image.
▪ Large areas can be scanned fast, hence major savings in time, people, work and machinery.
▪ Thermographic device is risk free as it does not emit any radiation.
▪ Thermographic testing may be performed during both day and night time hours.
▪ Thermographic testing is a non-contacting type NDT technique (No couplant is needed as in
the case of ultrasonic testing)
▪ Results are relatively easy to interpret.
▪ Unique inspection method to identify open micro cracks in thermally sprayed coatings
difficult to inspect with other NDT methods.
▪ Relative comparison of distribution of surface temperature can be used over a wide area.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Limitations of Thermography Testing

Some of the limitations of thermography testing are given below.

▪ Due to the fact that it uses infrared technology it is not possible to penetrate in extended
depths (only few millimeters).
▪ Thermal losses by convection and radiation that might induce spurious contrasts affecting the
reliability of the interpretation.
▪ Surface painting is required in low emissivity materials to increase and equalize emissions.
▪ Active thermography equipment is more expensive than ultrasound devices.
▪ Capability to detect only defects resulting in a measurable change of the thermal properties
from the inspected surface.
▪ Reflective surfaces that cannot be made more emissive, the subsurface condition may not be
resolved.
▪ Only the surface of an object can be seen thermally.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Elements of Infrared Detection System

A typical system for detecting infrared radiation is as shown:

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

Thermographic Camera:
▪ It is also known as infrared camera or thermal imaging camera.
▪ It is a device that forms a heat zone image using infrared radiation,
similar to a common camera that forms an image using visible light.
▪ Instead of the 400-700 nm range of the visible light camera,
infrared cameras operate in wavelengths as long as 14.000 nm.
Thermographic Camera Construction:
▪ The focusing lenses of IR cameras are not made of glass. as glass blocks long-wave infrared light.
▪ Special materials such as Germanium or Sapphire crystals are used for this purpose.
▪ Germanium lenses are also quite fragile, so often have a hard coating to protect against
accidental contact.
▪ The higher cost of these special lenses is one reason why thermographic cameras are more costly

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

Types of Thermographic Camera:

Thermographic cameras can be broadly divided into two types:
▪ Cooled infrared detectors
▪ Uncooled infrared detectors

▪They are typically contained in a vacuum-sealed case and cryogenically cooled.

▪ Cooled Infrared ▪The cooling is necessary for the operation of the semiconductor materials used.
Detectors ▪Typical operating temperatures range from 4 K to just below room temperature.
▪They provide higher detection performance and faster response speed.

▪ Uncooled Infrared ▪Uncooled thermal cameras use a sensor stabilized at a temperature close to
Detectors ambient using small temperature control elements. (They use infrared energy as heat)
▪Modern uncooled detectors use sensors that work by the change of resistance.
voltage or current when heated by infrared radiation.
▪They have lower sensitivity than the cooled IR detectors.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

TYPES OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING

▪ Thermography testing can be broadly classified as follows:

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Passive Thermography

In passive thermography, the features of

interest are naturally at a higher or lower
temperature than the background.
Example: surveillance of people on a scene
All objects above absolute zero emit thermal
infrared energy, so thermal cameras can
passively see all objects, regardless of ambient
light.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Passive Thermography

▪ Figure shows the configuration of passive approach. An object, at elevated

temperature with respect to environment can be monitored using an IR camera
without an aid of additional external source of energy.
▪ A computer system is used to display and process images.
▪ The passive approach is often qualitative, such as the diagnosis of the presence of
a given abnormality (hot/cold spots) with respect to surroundings.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Passive Thermography

Advantages
▪ Passive thermography provides unique opportunities to quickly test large areas.
▪ Testing of a structure is possible without taking the equipment out of service.
▪ This method is most effective when looking for strong thermal indications that have
persistence, such as water or other fluid flowing through conduits.
▪ It does not always require expensive thermal imaging equipment
Limitations
▪ Effective result in passive thermography testing depends on temperature difference (ΔT) or
thermal contrast exists between the feature of interest i.e. internal flaw on a specimen; and
its surroundings.
▪ An experienced thermographer is needed to interpret thermographic results.
▪ Raw thermal data is qualitative one and relying on the training and expertise of the
thermographer.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Passive Thermography Testing - Applications
▪ Inspection of printed circuit boards (PCBS) to detect solder bridges and overheating components.
▪ Seam tracking in arc welding
▪ In the production of metals, recording of temperature profiles enables monitoring of steel
quality in continuous casting
▪ Inspection of turbine blades in jet engines
▪ Thermal insulation of building envelopes, heated floors, furnace walls
▪ Estimation of liquid level in tanks.
▪ Early detection of transformer overheating
▪ Visualization of gas leaks
▪ Detection of Forest Fires Safety of forest areas through early detection of shouldering fires.
▪ Satellites with infrared imaging capabilities are also used to monitor the Earth's weather
▪ Military - Revealing the presence of potential targets in poor visibility conditions
(eg at night or in fog).
▪ Air-to-air detection of incoming enemy missiles or aircraft from their hot exhaust gases
▪ Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defense.
NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT
Active Thermography

▪ In active thermography approach, an external stimulus is needed to produce a thermal

contrast in the object surface. When external source of heat is applied the thermal state the
object to be inspected is destabilized.

▪ Example: Internal defects in the object like voids, cracks, delamination foreign material
inclusion etc causes thermal disequilibrium and resulted in distinctive surface thermal
patterns between the defects and sound material.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Active Thermography

▪ In this technique, the sample is heated by an external source (optical, mechanical,

electromagnetic or other).
▪ Controlled heat source and its surface temperature is monitored as a function of time through
changes of emitted infrared radiation.
▪ The specific thermal properties of material under test influence transport of heat thus causing
surface temperature to change with respect to areas with different thermal properties.
▪ Due to the thermo physical properties of the testing material, defective and non-defective surface
produces a measurable thermal constant.
▪ IR camera acquires data on thermal emissions and is displayed in the computer.
▪ The appearance of subsurface defect is proportional to its depth.
▪ The time of application of the external heat source can be synchronized with the acquisition
system, quantitative data analysis is possible by this method.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Active Thermography

▪ Energy Sources in Active Thermography:

▪ A wide variety of energy sources can be used to induce a thermal contrast
between defective and non-defective zones.

These energy sources can be categorized as:

▪ External Energy Source
▪ Internal Energy Source

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Active Thermography

External Excitation:
▪ Energy is delivered to the surface and then propagated through the material until
it encounters a flaw.
▪ Examples:
▪ Photographic flashes (for heat pulsed stimulation)
▪ Halogen lamps (for periodic heating)
Externally Excited Thermographic Methods:
▪ Externally applied active thermographic methods are further classified as:

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Pulsed Thermography

▪ In pulsed thermography (PT), the specimen surface is submitted to a heat pulse

using a high power source such as photographic flashes.
▪ A heat pulse can be called as the combination several periodic waves at different
frequencies and amplitudes.

Working Procedure:
Two photographic flashes are used to heat up the
specimen's surface, after that the thermal changes
are recorded with an infrared camera.
A synchronization unit is needed to control the
time between the launch of the thermal pulse and
the recording with the IR camera.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Data Processing Techniques of Pulsed Thermography

▪ Detective zones will appear at higher or lower temperature with respect to non-
defective zones on the surface, depending on the thermal properties of both the
material and the defect.
▪ The temperature evolution on the surface is then monitored using an infrared
camera.
▪ Heat pulse produced by flash lamp is a periodic wave with different frequencies
and amplitudes. After the thermal front came into contact with the specimen's
surface, it travels from the surface, through the specimen.
▪ As time elapses, the surface temperature will decrease uniformly for a piece
without internal flaws: On the other side surface discontinuities (eg, porosity
cracks, inclusions, disband etc..) can be acted as resistances to heat, flow that
produce abnormal temperature patterns at the surface, which can be detected by
IR camera...

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

 Processing of Pulsed Thermography Data

▪ Data is stored as a 3D matrix, where x and y are the

spatial coordinates, and t is the time
▪ The data is analyzed on the basis of assumption that
- temperature decreases approximately √𝑡 (as per
Fourier equation), except for the defective areas,
where the cooling rate is different.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Pulsed Thermography

Advantages
▪ Pulsed thermography is fast and easy to deploy.
▪ Possibility to perform one-sided inspection.
▪ Real time data acquisition is possible.
▪ Appropriate on most multi-layer structure and porous material used in industries.
▪ Inspection of large surface is possible.
▪ Relatively unaffected by the object's geometry.
▪ Pulsed thermography is sensitive to voids and inclusions in the material which are difficult to
detect.
Limitations
▪ Sensible to duration of heating source.
▪ Expensive (as the Response time is very fast in case of metals, hence faster data acquisition
system is required).
▪ Surface condition and thickness of the object has influence on the data output.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Pulsed Thermography

Applications
▪ Structural evaluation of Glass Reinforced polymer (GRP) pipes.
▪ Assessment of damage on Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) panels.
▪ Checking sand witched panels of aircrafts.
▪ Identification of sub-surface defects like cracks, blowholes, porosity and inclusions in metals.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

 Lock-in Thermography

▪ Lock-in thermography (LT) is also known as modulated thermography

▪ In this method a small surface spot is periodically illuminated by an intensity modulated laser beam to
inject thermal waves into the specimen.
▪ Sinusoidal thermal waves are typically used in LT.
▪ The periodic wave propagates by radiation through the
air until it touches the specimen surface where heat is
produced and propagates through the material.
▪ Internal defects act as barrier for heat propagation
which produces changes in amplitude and phase of the
response signal at the surface.
▪ The thermal response is recorded using an infrared
detector and decomposed by a lock-in amplifier to
extract the amplitude and phase of the modulation.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

 Lock-in Thermography
Input and Output of Lock-in Thermography:
▪ The lamp send periodic waves (sinusoidal) at a given modulation frequency ω, for at least one cycle, until a steady state is
achieved.
▪ If the wave reaches areas of the object, with in which the thermo physical properties, it is partly reflected. The reflected part
interferes with the wave created at the surface, whereby interference pattern in the local surface temperature and thus in
the surface radiation is caused, which oscillates with the frequency of the thermal wave.
▪ By evaluating the amplitude and the phase of the local surface temperature
one gets information about the subsurface structure and defects.
▪ This output depends on the specimen's thermal properties and the defect's
depth, as described by the thermal diffusion length, which determines the rate of
decay of the thermal wave as it penetrates through the material.
▪ Mathematically, the thermal diffusion length is given by

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Lock-in Thermography

Advantages:
▪ Energy required to perform an LT experiment is generally less than in other active techniques.
▪ It is possible to test thick or thermally slow parts.
▪ The phase image is insensitive to external effects like sunlight and reflections.
Disadvantages:
▪ It is in general slower than other approaches such as pulsed thermography.
▪ Extra hardware, i.e. lock-in amplifier, is needed in order to retrieve the amplitude and phase of the response.
Applications:
▪ Determination of coating thickness
▪ Detection of delamination in composites.
▪ Detection of fiber orientation.
▪ Detection of corrosion.
▪ Determination of subsurface defects like porosity, inclusion.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Active Thermography
Internal Excitation:
▪ Energy is injected into the specimen in order to stimulate exclusively the defects.
▪ Vibrothermography technique uses internal excitation to perform the inspection.

Vibrothermography (VT):
▪It is also known as ultrasound thermography or
thermosonics.
▪The ultrasound wave is produced within specimen by
a transducer made of a stack of piezo elements and
concentrated in a titanium horn that acts like a
hammer.
▪After the elastic waves are injected to the specimen,
they travel through the material and dissipate their
energy mostly at the defects so heat is locally released.
▪The thermal waves then travel by conduction to the
surface. where they can be detected with an IR camera.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Internal Excitation – Vibrothermography Testing

Configurations of Vibrothermography Testing

There are basically two configurations for VT (similar to the optical methods discussed earlier)
a) Burst Vibrothermography (analogous to Pulse Thermography)
b) Lock-in Vibrothermography (analogous to Lock-in Thermography)

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Burst Vibrothermography

▪ In burst vibrothermography, a burst of ultrasonic waves are injected into the test specimen for a
short time and it varies from milliseconds to few seconds.
▪ In this method of testing, the ultra sound wave is produced by a transducer made of a stack of
piezo elements and concentrated in a titanium horn that acts like a hammer.
▪ Hence, the part being inspected should be firmly immobilized (without damaging the specimen)
to avoid cantilever effects, clapping and sliding of the transducer. Insertion of a coupling material
like a piece of fabric, water based gel or aluminum between the transducer and the specimen will
reduce losses. A bad coupling implies a poor ultrasound transmission but more seriously it creates
unwanted heat in the vicinity of the ultrasound injection point.
▪ After the mechanical sound waves (ultrasonics) are injected to the specimen, they travel through
the material and dissipate their energy mostly at the defects so heat is locally released.
▪ The thermal waves then travel by conduction to the surface, where they can be detected with an
IR camera. Then the data is processed and displayed in the computer, defects are identified.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Lock-in Vibrothermography

▪ Lock-in vibrothermography, also called as amplitude modulated Vibrothermography, is similar to

optical lock in thermography with a difference in excitation source.
▪ In this technique mechanical elastic wave at higher frequency is injected to the specimen.
▪ This equipment consists of ultrasonic vibration source, IR camera, control unit, computer with
processing software and display unit.
▪ Sonic waves propagate in the material and when they find internal defect they trigger the
dissipation of vibration energy into heat mainly by friction between the contacting surfaces of the
defect. Subsequently heat is conducted to the surface where it can be detected by IR camera.
▪ The frequency and shape of the response curves are preserved; the change is amplitude and
phase delay is processed and recorded for analysis.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Vibrothermography Testing
Advantages:
▪ In either lock-in or burst configuration. VT is extremely fast.
▪ Defect detection is independent from of its orientation inside the specimen, and both internal and open
surface defects can be detected.
▪ It is the most appropriate technique to inspect some types of defects. e.g. micro cracks, delamination's.
▪ There is only minimal heating of the inspected specimen since energy is usually dissipated mostly at the
defective areas.
Disadvantages:
▪ It is necessary to relocate the transducer to cover a large area for inspection. Hence, VT is only suitable for
relatively small objects.
▪ The most inconvenient aspect of VT is the need of a coupling media between the sample and the transducer,
and the need of holding the specimen.
▪ A bad coupling implies a poor ultrasound transmission but more precisely it creates unwanted heat in the
vicinity of the ultrasound injection point.

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT

Thermography Testing

NDT – Dr.Satish.N, Professor, BIT