Vincelette

American Deaf Culture

August Vincelette

Clemson University

1
Vincelette

American Deaf culture is the collection of language, history, art, norms, and more that are

shared by Deaf individuals in the United States of America. Despite having a long history, Deaf

culture tends to be an unknown for many non-signing hearing individuals in America. This essay

will provide a brief interview of American Sign Language, audism and deaf issues, history, and

cultural norms found in American Deaf culture.

American Sign Language

         Deaf culture is centered around American Sign Language (ASL), the native language of

the American Deaf community. It is important to note that ASL is not a signed version of

English and that almost every country has its own, unique signed language, regardless of the

predominant spoken language of the country. In fact, the 70+ million deaf people worldwide use

over 300 different signed languages (United Nations).

         In 1817, the American School for the Deaf was established in Hartford, Connecticut,

marking the beginning of formal deaf education in the United States. This school used Signed

English, a derivative of Signed French, to teach its students. The goal of Signed English was to

replicate the syntax of English in a signed form, however it is not a natural language for deaf

people and was replaced by 1835 with what is now known as American Sign Language.

Linguists, as well as the general public, did not recognize ASL as a real language until the 1960s,

when linguists started recognizing the complexity of the language (Mathay).

         American Sign Language has its own rules for syntax and pronunciation. There are

dialects of the language based on location, with some signs having many variations throughout

the country (Hand Speak). ASL does not currently have a standardized written version.

Typically, the transcription of what is being signed is written in GLOSS. GLOSS uses the

2
Vincelette

English equivalent for each sign while retaining ASL grammar and is typically written in all

caps. For example, the ASL GLOSS for the English sentence “the girl goes to the store” might

be “STORE, GIRL GO” or “GIRL GO STORE”

Another basic aspect of ASL is the four, sometimes five, parts of every sign: handshape,

movement, palm orientation, location, and, usually, non-manual markers like facial expressions.

As far as syntax, ASL uses both subject-verb-order (ex: BOY THROW BALL “the boy throws

the ball”) and object-subject-verb (ex: BALL, BOY THROW “the ball is thrown by the boy”). It

is generally assumed that a sentence is in present tense, and if the sentence is not present tense

then that tends to be established first (ex: PAST, BOY THROW BALL “the boy threw the ball”).

Articles, like ‘a’ or ‘the’, are not typically used, nor are “be verbs” such as ‘is’ or ‘are’. As you

can see, American Sign Language is a complex and unique language.

Audism and Deaf Issues

         As with all minorities, the American Deaf community is facing several issues. One

important concept is the idea of Audism. In 1975, Tom L. Humphries coined the term ‘audism’

to refer to the oppression deaf people face on the basis of their hearing (Bauman). Audism is a

form of ableism, or discrimination on the basis of ability, and is based on audio-centricity, the

idea that being able to hear is the norm and is good (Verbit Editorial).

         Audism takes both macro and micro forms. An example of audism on the micro level

may be someone assuming that a deaf person cannot drive or speak to an interpreter rather than

to the deaf person. On the macro level, audism can be seen through shutting down deaf schools

or medical institutions pushing assistive hearing devices as the only option.

3
Vincelette

         Audism and the lack of accessibility in many areas of society have created many

challenges for deaf individuals. For example, deaf individuals are still overrepresented in

unemployment rates and there is a large gap between the rates of hearing individuals who receive

higher education and the rates of deaf individuals who do (Corell). Families with deaf adults

make, on average, $15,000 less than families with no disabilities or deafness, and 20% of deaf

people live in poverty (Corell). These economic and educational gaps can have significant effects

on the physical and mental wellbeing of deaf individuals.

         Another problem deaf individuals face is the lack of social integration. More than 90% of

deaf children are born to hearing parents, and over 60% of those parents never learn any form of

signed language (Dougherty). This leads to language deprivation, which can lead life-long

education struggles and may prevent a person from ever fully developing a first language

(Dougherty). Additionally, deaf children who are not given access to signed language or an

environment in which they can communicate freely miss out on incidental learning, or the

knowledge gained informally through experiences, such as learning how to compromise through

playing or learning new words through someone else’s conversation. This provides a further

setback for deaf individuals.

         While the deaf community has many things to celebrate and is a rich culture with a

beautiful language, they still experience discrimination and are facing many issues.

History

         Deaf people have been around as long as humanity, and as such have a long and complex

history. From Hebrew law providing protections for deaf people in 1000 B.C. to modern events,

4
Vincelette

there is much to cover. This section will provide a very brief summary of some notable events,

however there is much that is not mentioned.

         In America, early deaf history necessitates a discussion of Martha’s Vineyard Island. The

book “Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language '' by Nora Ellen Groce details the history of

deafness on the island. When Englishmen from the Weald of Kent colonized the island, they

brought the genes for deafness with them. Due to transportation limitations, gene pools remained

limited, and so the genes for deafness proliferated. At one point in the 19th century, 1 in 155

islanders were deaf. Due to this high rate of deafness, the islanders adopted Martha’s Vineyard

Sign Language, and many residents, both deaf and hearing, knew some MVSL. This removed the

communication barriers deaf individuals typically face, and as such deaf people were able to be

fully integrated in the community. While new transportation and migration on and off the island

eventually diluted the gene pool, reducing deafness on the island and making it more similar to

the mainland, Martha’s Vineyard is still remembered as a sort of deaf utopia and is a testament

for how the world would look with equal access to communication.

         As mentioned earlier, the establishment of the American School for the Deaf by Laurent

Clerc and Thomas Gallaudet was an important event in deaf education in America (Gallaudet

University). This is the school many deaf children at the time attended, including children from

Martha’s Vineyard (Groce). Another important institution in American deaf education is

Gallaudet University. Originally founded in 1856 by Amos Kendall in Washington, D.C., the

school now known as Gallaudet University was first granted the right to award college degrees to

its students under the Lincoln administration in 1864, making it the first institution to grant

degrees to deaf students. Gallaudet University, named after Thomas Gallaudet, is an important

institution in Deaf Culture today.

5
Vincelette

         The incident that brought Gallaudet University and Deaf issues to the awareness of the

general hearing public is known as the Deaf President Now (DPN) protests. “Deaf President

Now!: The 1988 Revolution at Gallaudet University by John Christiansen and Sharon Barnartt

provides a very in-depth account of events leading up to and during these protests. Prior to 1988,

all of the presidents of Gallaudet University had been white, hearing males. In 1987, when the

seat for the presidency opened up, a group of six students known as “The Ducks” started

recruiting students and lobbying for a deaf person to be appointed president. On March 1st, 1988,

the first rally was held, and Elizabeth Zinser, the only hearing finalist for the presidency, was

asked to withdraw. On Sunday, March 6th, Zinser was appointed president by the Board of

Trustees, and the next day students occupied campus and released a list of demands. They had

four demands: Zinser must resign and be replaced by a Deaf person, the Chairperson of the

Board of Trustees must step down, Deaf people must constitute 51% of the Board, and there

must be no punishments against staff or students involved in the protest. By Tuesday, nationwide

support was pouring in in favor of the protestors. This included several senators writing in

support of a Deaf president and vocal support by Deaf actress Marlee Matlin, who was the first

Deaf actress to receive an Oscar in 1986. On Thursday, Zinser resigned and the first Deaf

president, Dr. I King Jordan, was appointed (Christansen).

         Following DPN, many important laws were passed in favor of Deaf people. For example,

the Telecommunications Accessibility Enhancement Act in 1988, the Television Decoder

Circuitry Act in 1990, and the Americans With Disability Act in 1990 were all passed shortly

after DPN (Gallaudet). The Telecommunications Accessibility Enhancement Act supported a

nationwide relay system and the Television Decoder Circuitry act required new televisions to be

able to support closed captions, and both acts increased communication and access for deaf

6
Vincelette

people (Gallaudet). The Americans with Disability Act prohibited discrimination on the basis of

ability or disability, an important protection for the deaf community (Gallaudet).

         In 2006, Deaf History Month was established by the American Library Association and

the National Association of the Deaf (National Today). In 2022, Deaf History Month was

changed to the full month of April, and the push for it to be recognized by the government

continues (National Today). The American Deaf community has a long history, one that is still

being created and celebrated today.

Cultural and Norms

         The American Deaf community has its own set of cultural values, artifacts, and norms.

Before discussing these things, it is important to understand the difference between ‘deaf’ and

“Deaf”. While there is a movement away from using these distinctions, the ‘big d’/ ‘little d’

difference is used frequently enough that it warrants discussion. Essentially, ‘deaf’, with a

lowercase ‘d’, refers to the state of not having full hearing. This refers only to the medical

condition, and someone who didn’t lose their hearing until later in life, speaks only English, and

knows nothing about Deaf culture is considered just as deaf as someone born deaf with Deaf

parents who went to deaf schools and is immersed in Deaf culture. On the other hand, ‘Deaf”

refers to cultural Deafness. This included things like using American Sign Language, identifying

as Deaf, and being well versed in the norms and values of the culture. In the above example, both

people are deaf, but only the latter is Deaf. Throughout this essay, and indeed throughout many

resources on Deaf culture, the d/Deaf distinction is used to clarify if the culture is being

discussed or just the lack of hearing. It is also important to note that not all Deaf people have the

same culture, much as all hearing people do not have the same culture. There is American Deaf

7
Vincelette

culture and Spanish Deaf culture and Japanese Deaf culture in the same way that there is

American hearing culture, Spanish hearing culture, and Japanese hearing culture.

         On a broad level, American Deaf culture is different from American Hearing culture in a

few key ways. For one, American hearing culture is highly individualistic and people are

expected to be self-reliant and independent. Deaf culture, however, tends to be collectivist, and

relationships and mutual care are expected. Hearing culture values speech and audio, whereas

Deaf culture values visuals.

         Another difference between American hearing culture and American Deaf culture is time.

While hearing American culture assumes punctuality and values being on time, Deaf culture

accepts lateness (Greene-Woods). This is sometimes referred to as Deaf Standard Time (DST).

William Vicars wrote that the DST phenomenon happens because Deaf people may show up

early to some events in order to get the best seating for communication, and then will prolong

leaving because of the scarcity of Deaf conversation partners. The prolonged leaving of the first

event may make them late for a second event, in which the Deaf person may offer information in

exchange for forgiveness from the people at the second meeting. This forgiveness is generally

accepted, which then creates the norm of it being okay to be late (Vicars). This, of course, is

something many Deaf people know when to and when not to operate on DST, as being late can

have very real consequences when operating in the hearing world. Related to the concept of DST

is the idea of long goodbyes. Deaf people tend to use goodbyes as a chance to continue a

conversation. When leaving a Deaf event, it is generally expected that you say goodbye to every

person, which, when these goodbyes are used for more conversations, can make leaving a

lengthy process. Furthermore, I’ve found that, if the place a group is meeting closes at a certain

time, it is common to move to a different place to continue socializing. An example of this is an

8
Vincelette

ASL event I went to last year. It was supposed to be 5pm to 7pm at Starbucks but went until

8pm. At 8, the Starbucks closed, and so the group moved to the Moe’s. It closed at 10, so

everyone went to a fast-food restaurant. The event that was supposed to end at 7 ended up

moving to two different places and not ending until 1am.

         Just as being late may be considered rude in American hearing culture but not American

Deaf culture, the information one can share or ask for, or what can be said in general, is also

different. While American hearing culture sees conversations about politics, appearance, money,

religion, health, etc to be rude, Deaf culture widely accepts these conversations as perfectly okay.

This is sometimes called “Deaf Blunt”. This is not to say that there is nothing that is considered

rude. There are etiquette rules as with any culture. For example, it is considered rude to leave a

room without announcing it, look away from a signer, or for a hearing signer to correct a deaf

person’s signing. That being said, it is completely acceptable for a deaf signer to correct a

hearing signer, regardless of how long they’ve been signing.

         While Deaf people tend to have long goodbyes and there is a process to leaving, there are

also different norms surrounding meeting people than in American hearing culture. In American

hearing culture, introductions are typically limited to your name and, if relevant, how you know

the person introducing you. In Deaf culture, introductions typically include a summary of your

hearing status, where you went to school, if your family is deaf, your social ties, etc. Names tend

to be of less importance in this introduction than in hearing culture. However, names do have

their own norms in American Deaf culture. Name signs are created to represent a person’s name

in replacement of fingerspelling the name of a person. Name signs can only be gifted by a Deaf

person, and it is frowned upon to ask for one or to create your own. Instead, name signs must be

earned through interaction with the Deaf community. Typical name signs use the handshape of

9
Vincelette

the first letter of your name and combine it with a sign that relates to something about you. For

example, I knew a deaf girl named Danielle, whose name sign was ‘d’ twirling near her head,

like her curly hair. One of my first name signs was ‘a’, the first letter of my name, tapped over

the shoulder like the sign for “boss”, because it was given to me by one of my mom’s former

students, who gave her the name sign ‘m’ and ‘boss’ because she was the teacher. My name sign,

therefore, showed that I was the child of her former teacher. Another example is a Deaf man I

met whose name sign was the ‘b’ handshape with the first knuckle of the index finger bent down,

because Benny was missing the first knuckle of his index finger. Name signs can tell a person

about you and makes it easier for others to reference you. Especially as a hearing signer, getting

a name sign is a point of pride.

Conclusion

         This brief overview of cultural norms, history, Deaf issues, and American Sign Language

demonstrate just how complex American Deaf culture is. While the American Deaf community

has made a lot of progress towards equality and has gained more attention and acceptance in

recent years, there is still more progress to be made.

10
Vincelette

Bibliography

Audism - understanding its effects on the Deaf Community. Verbit. (n.d.). Retrieved April 25,

2023, from https://verbit.ai/understanding-audism-and-its-affects-on-the-deaf-community/

Audism: Oppression in the lives of deaf individuals. VAWnet.org. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17,

2023, from https://vawnet.org/sc/audism-oppression-lives-deaf-individuals

Bauman, H.-D. (n.d.). Audism. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 17, 2023, from

https://www.britannica.com/topic/audism

Bridges For Deaf and HH. (n.d.). Deaf history. bridgesfordeafandhh. Retrieved April 25, 2023,

from https://www.bridgesfordeafandhh.org/deaf-history

The Deaf Community: An introduction. National Deaf Center. (2022, November 10). Retrieved

April 17, 2023, from https://nationaldeafcenter.org/resource-items/deaf-community-

introduction/

Deaf history. bridgesfordeafandhh. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2023, from

https://www.bridgesfordeafandhh.org/deaf-history

The deaf president now (DPN) protest - history. Gallaudet University. (2022, June 1). Retrieved

April 21, 2023, from https://gallaudet.edu/museum/history/the-deaf-president-now-dpn-

protest/

11
Vincelette

Dougherty, E. (2017, March 6). Studying language acquisition in Deaf Children: The brink.

Boston University. Retrieved April 25, 2023, from https://www.bu.edu/articles/2017/asl-

language-acquisition/

Drasglow, E. (2023, March 20). American sign language. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved

April 17, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-Sign-Language

Etiquette. VAWnet.org. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2023, from https://vawnet.org/sc/etiquette

Greene-Woods, A., Delgado, N. J., Buchanan, B., Sides, M., Behmanesh, A., Cheslik, B., Koo,

C. K., & Clark, M. (2020). Deaf Cultural Capital and its Conflicts with Hearing Culture:

Navigational Successes and Failures. JADARA, 54(1), 15-30. Retrieved from

https://repository.wcsu.edu/jadara/vol54/iss1/2

Groce, N. E. (2003). Everyone here spoke sign language: Hereditary deafness on Martha's

vineyard. Harvard University Press.

Groce, N. E. (n.d.). Deafness on Martha's vineyard. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April

25, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/deafness-on-Marthas-Vineyard

Handspeak. (2015, June 12). Language variation in sign language (sociolinguistics). ASL Sign

Language | Handspeak®. Retrieved April 17, 2023, from

https://www.handspeak.com/learn/111/#:~:text=Contextual%20variation%20is%20how

%20an,than%20that%20in%20male%20signers.

The impact of the deaf president now protest - the deaf president now (DPN) protest. Gallaudet

University. (2022, June 1). Retrieved April 25, 2023, from

12
Vincelette

https://gallaudet.edu/museum/history/the-deaf-president-now-dpn-protest/the-impact-of-

the-deaf-president-now-protest/

Law, S. (2023, January 23). Deaf history and culture in the United States. VPM. Retrieved April

25, 2023, from https://www.vpm.org/2021-03-30/deaf-history-and-culture-in-the-united-

states

Mathay, E. (2018, April 13). National Deaf History Month: Exploring the Record of Advocacy.

National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved April 17, 2023, from

https://jfk.blogs.archives.gov/2018/04/13/national-deaf-history-month-exploring-the-

record-of-advocacy/#:~:text=While%20American%20Sign%20Language%20(ASL,a

%20language%20of%20its%20own.

National deaf history month. National Today. (2023, March 12). Retrieved April 25, 2023, from

https://nationaltoday.com/national-deaf-history-month/#:~:text=National%20Deaf

%20History%20Month%20takes,their%20struggles%20in%20our%20society.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). Quick statistics about hearing. National

Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. Retrieved April 25, 2023, from

https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/quick-statistics-hearing#:~:text=About

%202%20to%203%20out,in%20one%20or%20both%20ears.&text=More%20than

%2090%20percent%20of%20deaf%20children%20are%20born%20to%20hearing

%20parents.

United Nations. (n.d.). International Day of Sign Languages. United Nations. Retrieved April 25,

2023, from https://www.un.org/en/observances/sign-languages-day#:~:text=Collectively

13
Vincelette

%2C%20they%20use%20more%20than,distinct%20from%20the%20spoken

%20languages.

Vicars, W. (2018, August). DST (deaf standard time): Lifeprint. Retrieved April 25, 2023, from

https://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/topics/deaf-standard-time-dst.htm

Vicars, W. (n.d.). ASL grammar: ASL Grammar:  The grammar of  American Sign Language

(ASL). Retrieved April 25, 2023, from

https://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/grammar.htm

14