General Physics 2

Capacitors and Dielectrics

4.1 CAPACITORS

A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge and electric potential energy. It is composed of two
parallel plates within which are insulated from each other. However, a capacitor cannot produce new
electrons; it can only store them.
The physical characteristics of a capacitor and its voltage affect how much electric charge a capacitor
can store. If you look inside a capacitor, you will see that the terminals are connected to two metal plates that
are separated by a dielectric or non-conducting substance. A dielectric increases a capacitor's capacity to
store charges or energy. The dielectric decreases the electric field strength inside the capacitor. This results
in a smaller voltage between the plates for the same charge. Thus, the capacitor stores the same charge for
a smaller voltage. Capacitors are usually found in electric flash photography, television receivers, heart
defibrillators, and automobile airbag sensors.
A capacitor is a device used to store electric charge. Typically, commercial capacitors have two
conducting parts close to one another, but not touching. (Most of the time, an insulator is used between the
two plates to provide separation.) When battery terminals are connected to an initially uncharged capacitor,
equal amounts of positive and negative charge, +Q and -Q, are separated into its two plates. The capacitor
remains neutral overall, but we refer to it as storing a charge Q in this circumstance.
The amount of charge a capacitor can store depends on two major factors: the voltage applied and
the capacitor's physical characteristics, such as its size.
A system composed of two identical, parallel conducting plates separated by a distance is called a
parallel plate capacitor. It is easy to see the relationship between the voltage and the stored charge for a
parallel plate capacitor. Each electric field line starts on an individual positive charge and ends on a negative
one, so that there will be more field lines if there is more charge. Drawing a single field line per charge is only
a convenience. We can draw many field lines for each change, but the total number is proportional to the
number of charges. Thus, the electric field strength is directly proportional to Q.
The field is proportional to the charge 𝐸 ∝ 𝑄, where the symbol ∝ means “proportional to". From
the previous discussion about electric potential in a uniform electric field, we know that the voltage across
parallel plates is 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑. Thus, 𝑉 ∝ 𝐸. It follows that 𝑉 ∝ 𝑄 and conversely 𝑄 ∝ 𝑉. This is true in
general that the greater the voltage applied to any capacitor, the greater the charge stored in it.
Different capacitors will store different amounts of charge for the same applied voltage, depending
on their physical characteristics. We define their capacitance C to be such that the charge stored in capacitor
is proportional to C. The charge stored in a capacitor is given by 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉. This equation expresses the two
major factors affecting the amount of charge stored; they are the physical characteristics of the capacitor C
and the voltage V. Rearranging the equation, we see that capacitance is the amount of charge stored per
𝑄
volt, or 𝐶 = 𝑉 .
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F), named after English scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867),
who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Since capacitance is change per unit
1𝐶
voltage, we see that a farad is a coulomb per volt, or 1𝐹 = 1𝑉 .
A one-farad capacitor would be able to score 1 coulomb (a very large amount of charge) with the
application of only 1 volt. Thus, 1 farad is a very large capacitance. Capacitors are primarily made of ceramic,
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Capacitors and Dielectrics
glass, or plastic, depending on purpose and size. Insulating materials called dielectrics are commonly used
in their construction.

Parallel Plate Capacitor

The parallel plate capacitor has two identical conducting plates, each having a surface area A,
separated by a distance d (notice that there is no material between the plates).
When a voltage V is applied to the capacitor, it stores a charge. We know that like charges repel and
unlike charges attract, and that the force between charges decreases with distance. It is reasonable to think
that the bigger the plates, the more charge they can store because the charges can spread out more.
Similarly, the closer the plates are together, the greater the attraction of the opposite charges on them. The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in equation form is given by
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0
𝑑
A is the area of one plate in square meters, and d is the distance between the plates in meters. The
constant 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space; its numerical value in SI units is 𝜀0 = 8.85x10−12 𝐹/𝑚. The
units of 𝐹/𝑚 are equivalent to 𝐶 2 /𝑁 2 ∙ 𝑚2.
The small numerical value of 𝜀0 , is related to the large size of the farad. A parallel plate capacitor
must have a large area to have a capacitance approaching a farad. Note that the given equation is valid
when the parallel plates are separated by air or free space. When another material is placed between the
plates, the equation is modified.

Example 1: Capacitance and Charge Stored in a Parallel Plate Capacitor

(a) What is the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with metal plates, each area is 1.00 m2, separated
by 1.00 mm? (b)What charge is stored in this capacitor if a voltage of 3.00x103 V is applied to it?

𝐴
Strategy: Finding the capacitance is a straightforward application of the equation 𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝑑 .
Once C is found, the charge stored can be found using the equation Q = CV. Solution for (a): Entering
the given values into the equation for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor yields
𝐴 −12
𝐹 1.0 𝑚2
𝐶 = 𝜀0 = (8.85x10 )( )
𝑑 𝑚 1.0x10−3 𝑚
𝐶 = 8.85x10−9 𝐹
𝐶 = 8.85 𝑛𝐹

Discussion for (a): This small value for the capacitance indicates how difficult it is to make a device with a
large capacitance. Special techniques help, such as using very large area thin foils placed close together.

Solution for (b): The charge stored in any capacitor is given by the equation 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉. Entering the known
values into this equation gives
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (8.85x10−9 𝐹)(3.0x103 𝑉)
𝑄 = 26.6𝜇𝐶
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Capacitors and Dielectrics

Discussion for (b): This charge is only slightly greater than those found in typical static electricity. Since air
breaks down at about 3.0x106 𝑉/𝑚, more charge would not be stored on this capacitor if the voltage
increases

4.2 DIELECTRICS

There is difficulty in storing a large amount of charge in capacitors. An important solution to this
difficulty is to put an insulating material, called a dielectric, between the places of a capacitor and allow d to
be as small as possible. Not only does the smaller d make the capacitance greater, but many insulators can
withstand greater electric fields than air before breaking down.
Another benefit of a dielectric in a capacitor is increasing capacitance than that given by the equation
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝑑 by a factor K, called the dielectric constant. A parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric between its
plates has a capacitance given by
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝑲 𝜀0
𝑑

Dielectric: Increasing Capacitance

Microscopically, how does a dielectric increase capacitance? Polarization of the insulator is
responsible. The more easily it is polarized, the greater its dielectric constant K.
Water, for example, is a polar molecule because one end of the molecule has a slight positive charge
and the other end has a slight negative charge. The polarity of water causes it to have a relatively large
dielectric constant of 80. The effect of polarization can be best explained in terms of the characteristics of the
Coulomb force.
The Coulomb force between the closest ends of the molecules and the charge on the plates are
attractive and very strong since they are very close together. This attracts more charge onto the plates than
if the space were empty and the opposite charges were a distance d away.
Another way to understand how a dielectric increases capacitance is to consider its effect on the
electric field inside the capacitor. When the field lines end on charges in the dielectric, there are fewer of
them going from one side of the capacitor to the other. Therefore, the electric field strength is less if there
were a vacuum between the plates, even though the same charge is on the plates.
The voltage between the plates is 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 and is also reduced by the dielectric. Thus, there is a
𝑄
smaller voltage for the same charge, since 𝐶 = 𝑉 , the capacitance is greater. The dielectric constant is
𝑬𝟎
generally defined to be 𝑲 = or the ratio of the electric field in a vacuum to that in the dielectric material,
𝑬
and is intimately related to the polarizability of the material.
Based on the figure below, (a) The molecules in the insulating material between the plates of a
capacitor are polarized by the charged plates. This produces a layer of opposite charges on the surface of
the dielectric that attracts more charge onto the plate, increasing its capacitance. (b) The dielectric reduces
the electric field strength inside the capacitor, resulting in a smaller voltage between the plates for the same
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Capacitors and Dielectrics
charge. The capacitor stores the same charge for a smaller voltage, implying that it has a larger capacitance
because of the dielectric.

4.3 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Several capacitors may be connected together in a variety of applications. Multiple connections of

capacitors act like a single equivalent capacitor. The total capacitance of this equivalent single capacitor
depends both on the individual capacitors and how they are connected. There are two simple and common
types of connections, called series and parallel, for which we can easily calculate the total capacitance.
Certain more complicated connections can also be related to combinations of series and parallel.

Capacitors in Series
Opposite charges of magnitude Q flow to either side of the originally uncharged combination of
capacitors when the voltage V is applied.
Conservation of charge requires chat equal-magnitude charges be created on the places of the
individual capacitors, since charge is only being separated in these originally neutral devices. The end result
is that the combination resembles a single capacitor with an effective plate separation greater than that of
the individual capacitors alone. A greater plate separation means smaller capacitance. It is a general feature
of capacitors in series that the total capacitance is less than any of the individual capacitances. We can find
an expression for the total capacitance by considering the voltage across the individual capacitors
1 1 1 1
The equation for the total capacitance in series 𝐶𝑆 would be 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 + ⋯ where " … "
𝑆 1 2 3
indicates that the expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected in series. An expression of this
form always results in a total capacitance 𝐶𝑆 that is less than any of the individual capacitances 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , …,
as in the following example.
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Capacitors and Dielectrics

(a) Capacitors connected in series. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is Q. (b) An equivalent
capacitor has a larger plate separation. Series connections produce a total capacitance that is less than that
of any of the individual capacitors.

Example 2. What is the Series Capacitance?

Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual capacitances are
1.0𝜇𝐹, 5.0𝜇𝐹, and 8.0𝜇𝐹.

Strategy: The total capacitance can be found using the equation for capacitance in series.

1 1 1 1 1
Solution: Entering the given capacitances into the expression for gives =𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆 1 2 3
1 1 1 1 1.325
= + + =
𝐶𝑆 1.0𝜇𝐹 5.0𝜇𝐹 8.0𝜇𝐹 𝜇𝐹

𝜇𝐹
Inverting to find 𝐶𝑆 yields 𝐶𝑆 = 1.325 = 0.755𝜇𝐹

Discussion: The total series capacitance 𝐶𝑆 is less than the smallest individual capacitance, as promised. In
series connections of capacitors, the sum is less than the parts. In fact, it is less than any individual.

Capacitors in Parallel
To find the equivalent total capacitance 𝐶𝑃 , we first note that the voltage across each capacitor is V,
the same as that of the source, since they are connected directly to it through a conductor. Conductors are
equipotentials, and so the voltage across the capacitors is the same as that across the voltage source.
Thus, the capacitors have the same charges on them as they would have if connected individually
to the voltage source. The total charge Q is the sum of the individual charges: 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 . Using
the relationship 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉, we see that the total charge is 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑉, and the individual charges are 𝑄1 =
𝐶1 𝑉, 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉 ,and 𝑄3 = 𝐶3 𝑉. Entering these into the previous equation gives 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 +
𝐶3 𝑉.
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Capacitors and Dielectrics

(a) Capacitors in parallel. Each is connected directly to the voltage source just as if it were all alone,
and so the total capacitance in parallel is just the sum of the individual capacitances. (b) The equivalent
capacitor has a larger plate area and can therefore hold more charge than the individual capacitors.

Example 3. A Mixture of Series and Parallel Capacitance

Assume the capacitances are known to three decimal places (𝐶1 = 1.000 𝜇𝐹, 𝐶2 = 5.000 𝜇𝐹, and 𝐶3 =
8.000 𝜇𝐹), and round your answer to three decimal places.

Strategy: To find the total capacitance, we first identify which capacitors are in series and which are in parallel.
Capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in series. Their combination, labeled in the figure, is in parallel with 𝐶3 .

1 1 1
Solution: Since 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in series, their total capacitance is given by 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶
𝑆 1 2
Entering their values into the equation gives
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Capacitors and Dielectrics

1 1 1 1 1 1.20
= + = + =
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 1.0 𝜇𝐹 5.0 𝜇𝐹 𝜇𝐹

Inverting gives 𝐶𝑠 = 0.833𝜇𝐹

This equivalent series capacitance is in parallel with the third capacitor; thus, the total is the sum
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐶3 = 0.8333𝜇𝐹 + 8.0𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 8.8333𝜇𝐹

Discussion: This technique of analyzing the combinations of capacitors piece by piece until a total is obtained
can be applied to larger combinations of capacitors.