LESSON 4:

PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

Facilitating Learner-centered Teaching By: Ferdinand Bulusan, Marcelo R. Raquepo, Marilyn L. Balmeo and Joselito C. Gutierrez By: Rex
Books Store 2019

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

• describe problem solving and creativity:

• explain the stages/processes of problem solving and creativity,
• cite situations manifesting barriers to problem solving and creativity:
• differentiate common problem-solving strategies; determine the role of transfer of learning
in problem solving and creativity, and
• cite classroom applications of theories related to problem solving and creativity.

THINK

Problem Solving
Ana's food catering business has been profitable, as there is no competitor. Lately, a new
catering group was put up, offering as good services similar to hers. With the presence of the
competitor, some clients have shifted to the new provider. Ana inquires on how to sustain her
customers' loyalty. This situation illustrates a problem.
A problem arises when there is a difference between where you are now (e.g., the presence
of Anas competitor) and where you want to be (e.g., Ana's desire to sustain customer loyalty). A
distinguishing feature of a problem is that there is a goal to be reached through some action on
your part, but how to get there is not immediately apparent. There is an obstacle or a gap between
where you are now and where you want to be (Robertson, 2015). In Ana's case, her goal is to
sustain the customer clients, but the solution is not there yet (current state).
A necessary element of a problem is the presence of an obstacle or block toward the
attainment of that goal. For this reason, problem-solving happens when an individual strives to
eliminate the obstacle that hinders the attainment of the desired goal. "If no obstacle hinders
progress toward a goal, attaining the goal is no problem" (Reese, 1994). Figure 11 illustrates the
elements of a problem scenario.

Current state Block/Obstacle Desired Goal

Figure 11. Elements of a problem scenario.

 Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the
problem solver does not initially know a solution method (Mayer, 2013). This definition consists
of four major elements (Mayer, 1992; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006), namely:
1. Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the problem solver's cognitive system and can
only be inferred indirectly from the problem solver's behavior (including biological
changes, introspections, and actions during problem solving)
2. Process. Problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is applied
to a mental representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of new mental
representation.
3. Directed. Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.
4. Personal. Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so
that what is a problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who
already knows a solution method.

Types of Problems
Problems can be classified in many ways. For one, it could either be well-defined or ill-
defined problem, Robertson (2015) described a well-defined problem as one that provides all the
information required to solve it." Jonassen (1997) considered it as a problem requiring the
application of a definite number of concepts, rules, and principles being studied to a constrained
problem situation. The problem tells you everything you need to know to solve it or whether you
need to work out for yourself what you are supposed to do. Likewise, it tells you whether or not
there is only one answer or solution or there are many solutions
For example, in the problem 4 +3 =7, you are certain that you are to add the two numbers
and there is only one correct answer You also know that you are 100% right or wrong.
Nevertheless, there are instances that you have everything to know to solve the problem, but you
cannot still arrive at the answer In Mathematics, for instance, you know the MDAS (multiplication,
division, addition, and subtraction) rule, but applying them may not be clear to you.
An ill-defined problem, meanwhile, is one where the initial state of the problem is given
but what the goal state looks like is not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is typically situated and
emergent from a specific context, where an aspect or aspects of the problem scenario are not well
specified, the problem descriptions are not definite, or the information needed to solve it is not
expressed in the problem statement (Chi & Glaser, 1985). Because of this situation, there may be
many correct answers as the learners have divergent circumstances and experiences related to the
emergent context. An example of an ill-defined problem is, "You notice that the population of your
town is tremendously increasing and you are alarmed of the consequences. What could you do?"
This problem is ill-defined as it is a complex problem. The solution to the problem is multifaceted
as there is an interplay of social, political, religious, and psychological issues to consider in arriving
at the solution. The solution is one town varies to another town as their circumstances are different.
Thus, there is the possibility of getting many correct responses.
Approaches to Problem Solving
Several approaches have been advanced to explain the problem-solving abilities of
individuals (Anderson, 1996). One is the behaviorist approach, reproducing a previous behavior
to solve a problem. A person faced with a problem situation is likely to use the same solution
previously used and was effective in the past. To prepare the garden before planting, pick mattock
is traditionally used because the Crop Science teacher told it so.
In contrast to the reproductive approach advocated by behaviorists, the Gestaltist approach
to problem solving is a productive process. Kohler's experiments with apes underscored the role
of insight in the restructuring of a person's representation of the problem. As the individual ponders
upon how to solve a problem, a flash of an idea comes to mind, which eventually provides the best
solution to the problem. This situation illustrates the Eureka moment, the moment a person realizes
or solves something." A Science student saw a rural folk using akapulko extract (Cassia alata
Linn.), locally known as andadasi (Iloko), as an antifungal treatment. The extract was used on his
face to treat tinea flava. After three days of treatment, the extract did not only treat the main
problem, but it also peeled off dead cells in the face. The student concluded that the plant extract
also has exfoliating effect.

Problem-solving Cycle
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill, but rather an overlapping of
some thinking skills, as logical thinking, lateral thinking, synthesis, analysis, evaluation,
sequencing, decision making, research, and prediction are likely to be involved (Teare, 2006).
Metacognitive thinking, creativity, and transfer of learning interplay in the process. These
cognitive and metacognitive skills are expressed in the several models proposed to undertake
problem solving. The IDEAL model (Bransford & Stein, 1993) is adopted to explain the process
of problem solving. Figure 12 indicates the specific steps to solve a problem.

Identify
Problems and
opportunities

Look back Define

and learn Goals

Anticipate Explore
outcomes possible
and act
 Figure 12. The IDEAL model of the problem-solving process

Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities.

Problem solving initially identifies the problem or potential problems. Determining the
causes of the problem is necessary to pinpoint the major cause to prioritize in resolving the
problem. Considering problems with a positive outlook serves as opportunities to do something
creative. When problems are treated as opportunities, the result is often an unexpected solution or
invention, It can be beneficial to actively attempt to identify problems that have gone unnoticed.
People who identify important problems and treat them as opportunities are often among the most
successful in their fields.
For instance, your parents have informed you that in the next semester you will stop for the
meantime as they are financially incapable to send you to college. It is just one semester more; just
the Practice Teaching that you need to fulfill to finish your degree. The problem is how would you
financially support your last semester in school. This dilemma is the current state of the situation.

Step 2: Define goals.

The second aspect of the model requires you to carefully define your goals in the problem
situation This is different from identifying the problem. For a problem situation, a group of people
could identify the existence of a general problem and agree that it represents an opportunity but
still disagree about what their goals should be. Different goals often reflect differences in how
people understand a problem For the problem situation above, the goal is to continue with your
college education because it is just one semester before graduation. Another student with the same
problematic situation may have a different goal. Different goals can lead people to explore very
different strategies for solving a problem.

Step 3: Explore possible strategies.

This step involves looking back at your goals and finding possible strategies to solve the
problem It entails the recall of procedural knowledge from long-term memory, As you think of
alterative ways to solve the problem, ascertain that the chosen alternative fits the goal set.
Bransford and Stein (1993) argued that even when people explicitly try to solve problems, they
often fail to use appropriate strategies. Some strategies in problem solving are very general and
apply to almost any problem, whereas there are strategies that are very specific and applicable only
to a few or limited cases
Many strategies are suggested to make problem solving easier: however, the two main
strategies used are heuristic and algorithm. Heuristic is a rule of thumb, a mental shortcut that
works for solving a problem." especially those about decision-making tasks. Although there is no
100% certainty that the strategy is successful or adequate to solve the problem, it is most of the
time effective and efficient in solving the problem. Because of its efficiency, heuristic can lessen
the time to solve and can reduce cognitive load. A student who is always late to class may use the
alarm clock in the cellphone to signal it is time wake up. It may work effectively at times, but if
one is in deep slumber, the person may not be awakened by the alarm. In another example, a
Mathematics student may know the application of the mnemonics FOIL (First Outside - Inside
Last) and can solve problems involving simple numbers, but may not be able to answer correctly
because he or she does not know the multiplication rules of signed numbers.
Besides, Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general problem-solving heuristics for
moving from a given state to a goal state: random trial and error hill climbing, and means-ends
analysis. Random trial and error involves randomly selecting a legal move and applying it to create
a new problem state and repeating that process until the goal state is reached. Random trial and
error may work for simple problems but is not efficient for complex ones. Hill climbing involves
selecting the legal move that moves the problem solver closer to the goal state. Hill climbing will
not work for problems in which the problem solver must take a move that temporarily moves away
from the goal as is required in many problems. The means-ends analysis involves creating goals
and seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal cannot be directly accomplished a sub-
goal is created to remove one or more obstacles. The second major strategy is an algorithm, the
use of a series of steps to solve a problem.
The elements of an algorithm include clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs,
results, and preconditions Computer programming is a classic example using an algorithm. The
use of "If. then... propositions tells the precondition for the next step to progress. If the next step
does not satisfy the condition, it will not result in the expected goal. Doing the standard algorithms
for the fundamental operations in Mathematics requires doing the same steps repeatedly with each
place value column in a given problem. For instance,
3012
+ 1224
4236

In teaching origami (the art of paper folding). steps presented should be followed one at a
time to arrive at the correct art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM card, one needs
to follow the electronic cues to succeed.

Step 4: Anticipate outcomes and act.

Once a strategy is selected, the person must anticipate what outcomes will likely be. The
expectation is the solution to the problem. When assured that the goal will be solved, the person
acts or implements the planned strategy. For example, a learner anticipates that the answer to the
problem 23 21 should be more than 400 but not 500. It should not be less than 400 because 20 x
20 is already 400. This assurance gives the person the confidence to implement the planned
strategy. When a person withdraws money through the ATM, the anticipation is that money will
be churned out by the machine. That motivates the person to follow the steps as cued by the
machine.

Step 5: Look back and learn.

What transpired after the planned strategy to solve the problem is proof of its effectiveness.
In metacognition, this step is the evaluation of the actions or solutions implemented. If the results
give the correct answer, then the strategy used is good and effective. If the answer is wrong, then
metacognitively ask, "What went wrong? The answers could be in the details missed during the
analysis of the problem, the inappropriateness of the heuristic or algorithm strategy, or in the
miscalculations. Realizing the errors committed along the way will make the person understand
the mistakes committed. Learning from the experience will make the person more careful next
time a similar task is given

Barriers to Problem Solving

In the search for alternative strategies to solve the problem, the individual finds difficulty in
coming up with a potential solution because of varied reasons. Anderson (1996) listed some of
these and they are as follows.
1. Mental set. The situation when the person becomes fixated on the of a strategy that
previously produced the right solution, but in the new situation it is not the application. In
metacognitive thinking, this is conditional knowledge. An English language learner may
be fixated on the rule that the past tense of the verb is usually formed by adding -d. -ed to
the base form. Thus, given an irregular verb like GO, the answer given could be "goed."
Moreover, a Mathematics learner could not get the sum of three-digit numbers that require
carrying over because he or she is fixated to the addition of numbers without carrying over.
2. Functional fixedness. This is a phenomenon when individuals fail recognize that objects
can have other purposes, aside from the traditional use they were made for. A learner may
think that a spoon is only used for eating. However, in instances when no bottle opener is
available, a spoon is usually used to open a bottle of soda drink.
3. Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant information. This happens when a
situation arises during the analysis of a problem when an individual cannot discern the
relevant information needed in planning the strategy to solve a problem. When the
irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the process, it will lead to a wrong
solution to the problem. An example is a problem of what to include in a bulletin
announcement to help someone who lost a bunch of keys. Children were asked which
details to include were relevant, like where and when it was lost, how many keys were
there in the keyholder, which keys were these, who owned it, where the key holder was
 bought, when it was bought. Some children may not be able to identify the relevant from
the irrelevant ones.

Creativity in Problem Solving

As pointed out in the earlier discussion, mental set and functional fixedness are stumbling
blocks in problem solving. These obstacles hamper the consideration of new alternative ways to
solve a problem. They illustrate the lack of creativity on the part of the person. Theorists agree that
creative problem solving must be taught and encouraged among learners
What is creativity? Plucker et al. (2004) defined creativity as "the interaction among
aptitude, process, and the environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible
product that is both novel and useful as defined within a social context." The definition underscores
the role of aptitude, process, product, novelty, and use. According to Plucker et al. (2004), aptitude
represents a dynamic set of characteristics (eg.. openness, tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility in
thinking, perseverance, motivation for creativity, need for self-expression), as well as abilities
pertaining to the creative process that can be shaped by experience, learning, and training
(Grohman & Szmidt, 2013). Others call aptitude as creative attitude.
Varied theories explain how creativity is developed (Kozbelt et al., 2010). One is the
developmental theory, which advocates that creativity develops over time (from potential to
achievement). It is mediated by an interaction of person and environment. It emphasizes the
influence of the place and family structures the role of play and support during the transitions.
Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that ideational thought processes are
foundational to creative persons and accomplishment. Individuals who discern remote association,
and are good at divergent/convergent thinking and conceptual combination and metacognitive
processes are likely to be more creative. The stage and componential process of creativity point
out that creative expression proceeds through a series of stages or components. The process can
have linear and recursive elements. It highlights the importance of preparation, incubation and
insight, and verification and evaluation in creative thinking a One of the first models of creativity
was advanced by Guilford (1967). He considered creativity as divergent thinking act. He claimed
that creativity is the result of several processes: fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.
Fluency is defined as the ability to produce a great number of ideas or problem solutions in a short
period. In solving problems related to solid wastes, a learner can give novel ideas on recycling a
plastic water container more than the other learners, which demonstrates fluency. Flexibility is the
ability to simultaneously propose a variety of approaches to a specific problem. In recycling a
plastic water container, a learner can suggest many ways of using them. It can be used as food
container, wall decoration, and insect trap, which shows that the learner has flexibility of ideas
`Meanwhile, originality refers to the ability to produce new, original ideas, as well as products. If
there is no other learner who gave the same idea or product of another learner, that idea is original,
as there is only one learner who could think of it. Lastly, elaboration is the ability to systematize
and organize the details of an idea in one's head and carry it out. If the learner could pick one
solution to solve a problem and give specific details to implement the same, he or she is
manifesting elaboration
The creative process follows certain stages (Boden, 2002; Gabora, 2002; Sadler-Smith,
2015). It includes preparation, incubation, illumination, and ventication (see Figure 13).

Incubation
(Subconscious
working on the
idea)

Light bulb

form)

Figure 13. Stages of the creative process.

Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process. It involves becoming passionate
about an idea, which motivates you to gather materials (read, observe, compare). The information
gathered seeps into your subconsciousness, eventually remaining there momentarily. The next step
is incubation, the period where you unconsciously continue to work on the idea, but there is no
active attempt to solve the problem. The mind just wanders until an idea takes form. In the next
step, illumination, a sudden idea pops out in your mind. The subconscious thoughts find the
connection with the consciousness, resulting in the AHA and Eureka moments. Once the idea is
concretized, it needs to be verified. Verification, the final stage of the creative process, involves
working with the idea into a form that can be tested and once proven, it could be communicated to
others.
 A research conducted by Calubaquib (2013) illustrates the creative problem solving. One
time, she heard from a fellow teacher about the parents personal experience about the potency of
cat's whiskers or balbas pusa (Orthosiphon aristatus Linn.) as antihypertension treatment. As it
sounded interesting to her, she read more about the plant and the use of its extract. She wondered
about what other studies could be made out of the plant extract. At this stage, she was in the
preparation stage.
While thinking of a novel use for the balbas pusa extract, she was informed by the fellow
teacher after two weeks that not only did her blood pressure stabilize, but she also observed that
there were intestinal worms in her stool. This phase was the incubation stage
As Calubaquib was intrigued, a bright idea came to her mind. Balbas pusa cannot only act
as antihypertension but also be an antihelminthic. This is the illumination stage as she realized
about the possibility of using the plant extract to expel internal parasites. Following that idea, she
planned using swine as experimental animals to prove the antihelminthic potency and efficacy of
the plant extract, a study for her master's degree in chemistry. This is the verification stage of the
creative problem-solving process.

Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity

Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve declarative knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge from the long-term memory. If the problem-
solving task requires convergent answers, problem solving can be quite easy if the learner has
mastered algorithm techniques, Nevertheless, even if the problem-solving tasks require divergent
thinking, if there have been experiences in the past that enabled the learner to answer such tusk,
solving them could be successfully done.
The phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems are carried over or used in
solving new problems is referred to as the transfer of learning. Transfers of learning are categorized
into the following:
1. Near transfer and far transfer. When leamers apply their knowledge and skills in
situations and contexts that are very close to those in which the learning occurred, it is near
transfer. When learners perform a skill in a context very much different from the context it
was learned, it is far transfer Johnson, 1995). Learners find it easier to add three-digit
numbers after they have learned the lesson (near transfer). However, they find difficulty
employing the same skill when the task is transformed into a word problem solving (far
transfer).
2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use their prior knowledge or
experience in solving a new problem situation, it is a positive transfer. When the previous
learning or skill obstructs the acquisition of a new skill or the solving of a problem, it is
negative transfer. Using a new model of the same brand of Android mobile phone is easy
as the features are most likely the same (positive transfer). However, when a new phone
 using IOS technology is bought, there will be difficulty in using it the first time (negative
transfer).
3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When leamers use their learning at a lower level
to perform a higher level of cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal of the
spiral progression in the K to 12 curriculum. When learners use the same skill to solve a
related but different problem of the comparable level of difficulty after learning it, lateral
transfer happens. For example, Ruben finds it easy to add five-digit numbers as he has
mastered adding timbers with or without carrying over in the previous grade (vertical
transfer). Likewise, Ruben relies on his knowledge of finding ratios in Mathematics in
acquiring the skill of finding the seed germination rate in a Science laboratory task (lateral
transfer).
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not
enhance or hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.
In the transfer of learning, Glass and Holyoak (1986) stated that the problem-solving process
involves several aspects from which three major facets tend to emerge: the solver's representation
of the problem, the solver's background experiences, and the solver's understanding of the
problem." They explained that the learner begins the problem-solving process as soon as enough
information about the problem space is generated to gain an understanding of the problem. The
process involves associating concepts from previous experiences to solve a similar problem. The
learner is prompted by the potential answer when he or she recognizes similarities between the
previous experience and the new task Several theories explain how learning is transferred from
one situation to another (Woolfolk,2017). The theory of identical elements by Thorndike
maintains that the quality of transfer depends on the identical elements that are common in both
past new situations. If the content, method, goal, and attitude in the two situations are similar, the
transfer is facilitated. The theory of generalization, developed by Judd, states that skills learned
are transferrable to other situations. It argues that if the learner has fully understood the lesson and
mastered the competency, there is a greater likelihood that such skill can be transferred to a similar
situation. Meanwhile, the theory of configuration, anchored on Gestalt psychology, emphasizes
the important role of perception in the transfer of learning. It argues that what is learned in one
situation can be shifted directly to another situation only when similarity in content, method, or
attitude of the two situations is perceived by the learner

Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories

Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles associated with cognitive learning
theories. Along with problem solving, Woolfolk (2017) recommended the following
1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them separate relevant from irrelevant
information. Test their awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the
problem
 1. by diagramming or drawing it. Ask them to explain the problem to someone else
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Suggest several different
possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some Give students practice in taking
and defending different points of view on an issue
3. Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer individual problems as well as
group problems, so that each student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if
students have good reasons for "wrong" solutions to problems. If students are stuck, resist
the temptation to give too many clues. Let them think about the issue overnight.
4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Tell them to think
out loud as they solve problems. Ask: "What would happen if?" Keep a list of suggestions.
5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve problems

In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommended the following strategies in teaching
learners:
1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to
problems even if the final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for projects or
modes of presentation (written, oral, visual or graphic, using technology)
2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting opinions. Make sure that
nonconforming students receive an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.
3. Encourage students to trust their judgment. When students ask questions that you think
they can answer, rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to the students.
Give ungraded assignments from time to time.
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in some form. Avoid describing the feats
of great artists or inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments. Recognize
creative efforts in each student's work. Have a separate grade for originality on some
assignments.
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative projects. Here are some examples:
collect "found" materials for collages and creations-buttons, stones, shells, paper, fabric,
beads, seeds, drawing tools, clay-- and try flea markets and friends for donations. Have
mirrors and pictures for drawing faces. Make a well-lighted space available where children
can work on projects, leave them, and come back to finish them. Follow up on memorable
occasions (field trips, news events, holidays) with opportunities to draw, write, or make
music.
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class brainstorming sessions whenever possible.
Model creative problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class problems.
Encourage students to delay judging a particular suggestion for solving a problem until all
the possibilities have been considered.
7. Capitalize on new technology, Ask the students to use free apps to create visual maps of
ideas and share their ideas with others.
 To promote the transfer of learning, the following teaching-learning strategies are helpful
(Woolfolk, 2017):
1. Keep families informed about their child's curriculum so they can support their learning.
At the beginning of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few
of the major assignments, and some common problems that students have in learning the
material for that unit. Ask parents for suggestions about how their child's interests could
be connected to the curriculum topics.
2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or
apply what they learn from school. This strategy promotes a near transfer of learning. Ask
family members to include their children in some projects that require school learning.
3. Show connections between learning in school and life outside of school. Ask families to
talk about and show how they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies,
or community involvement projects.
4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies. Focus on one learning strategy at a
time. Ask families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy for a
homework that week

EXPERIENCE
Learners have differences in learning. owing to the variances in their ways to solve
problems, their levels of creativity, and their ability to transfer their learning to new contexts.
Studies have shown that these skills can be taught and enhanced. Many students experience
difficulties in solving applied physics problems. A study tested the effectiveness of PhysHint, a
student-controlled computer program that supports students in developing their strategic
knowledge in combination with support at the level of content knowledge (Pol et al., 2008). The
program allows students to ask for hints related to the episodes involved in solving a problem.
Data revealed that the program succeeded in improving strategic knowledge by allowing for more
effective practice time for the student (practice effect) and/or by focusing on the systematic use of
the available help (systematic hint-use effect).
If creativity is one of the desired learning goals, then teacher capacity is pivotal in teaching
for creativity (Tan et al., 2016). Meanwhile, Davies et al. (2012) identified from a vast creativity
literature that pedagogical practice is one of the key environmental features in molding student
creativity. Among the practices found are: designing learning tasks that are novel to stimulate
student’s creativity, planning for a structured yet flexible, self-directed learning experience; setting
a mutual respect atmosphere, open dialogue; and collaborative activities.
A study on the value of transfer of learning (Brion & Cordeiro, 2018) indicated that most
of the transfer of learning happen in areas not requiring mindset and behavioral changes. The
facilities in which the training took place, the facilitators' dispositions and knowledge, the
adequacy of the materials, as well as the testimonials and certificate of completions enhanced the
transfer of learning.