Easy Physics:

NUCLEI
Rutherford’s 𝛼 particle scattering Mass:
experiment revealed that an atom has a lot The mass of the nucleus is due to
of empty space and 99.9% of its mass lie in the mass of protons and neutrons present
a very small sphere of radius 10−15 𝑚 (1 in it. The mass of the nucleus Z X A is =
fermi) called the nucleus. 𝑍 𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 where 𝑚𝑝 denotes the
Shape and size: mass of a proton and 𝑚𝑛 denotes the mass
The nucleus is a sphere of radius 𝑅. 𝑅 = of a neutron.
𝑟0 𝐴1/3 where 𝑟0 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚 The neutron mass is only
and A denotes the mass number of the marginally higher than the mass of a
atom. proton. The average mass of a proton & a
Nucleus: neutron is the mass of a nucleon.
Protons and neutrons are the 𝑚𝑝 +𝑚𝑛
𝑚𝑁 =
constituent particles of the nucleus. They 2

are commonly called as nucleons. Hence we can say, the mass of Z X A

Electron Proton Neutron nucleus = 𝐴 𝑚𝑁
Mass −31
9.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔 1.67 × 10−27
𝑘𝑔 1.68 × 10 −27
𝑘𝑔 Density:
0.0005 𝑎𝑚𝑢 1.007267 𝑎𝑚𝑢 1.008665 𝑎𝑚𝑢 mass
𝑚𝑒 1836 𝑚𝑒 1840 𝑚𝑒 Nuclear density =
volume
𝐴.𝑚𝑁
Charge (−𝑒) (+𝑒) 0 =4
−1.602 × 10−19𝐶 +1.602 × 10−19 𝐶 𝜋 𝑟03 𝐴
3
𝑚𝑁
=4
Charge: 3
𝜋 𝑟03
The chemical symbol of an atom 1.67×10−27 ×3
= 4×3.14×(1.2×10−15 )3
X A denotes there are Z protons and
Z
= 2.3 × 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝐴 − 𝑍 = 𝑁, neutrons. [Z – atomic number, The density of nucleus is very high
A – mass number]. Hence the charge in the and it is the same for all atoms. Nuclear
nucleus is +𝑍𝑒. density does not depend on its mass
Volume: number. It is a constant.
Volume of the nucleus is given by Isotopes, Isotones & Isobars:
4
𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑅3 Isotopes are atoms of the same
4 3
= 3 𝜋(𝑟0 𝐴1/3 ) element. 1 H1 ,1 H 2 ,1 H 3 are isotopes of
4
= 3 𝜋 𝑟03 𝐴 hydrogen. They have the same chemical
properties but different physical
⟹ Volume ∝ mass number
properties.
atomic mass unit Isotones have same neutron
Small unit of mass that number, (𝑁 = 𝐴 − 𝑍). For example
conveniently expresses the masses of C14 , 8 O16 are isotones.
6
nuclear particles is amu.
1 Isobars, have same mass number
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 12 mass of atom
N , 6 C14 are isobars.
14
= 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 7

Isotones and Isobars are atoms of

different elements, their physical and
chemical properties are different.

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Easy Physics:
Mass & Energy conversion: To find this we calculate the
The revolutionary finding of Albert binding energy per nucleon (BE/A) value
Einstein has shown the matter and energy for all the atoms and draw the BE/A verses
are not two exclusive entities, they two can A graph.
be obtained from one-another using the
relation, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2.
The energy equivalent of 1 amu.
𝐸 = 1.66 × 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2
= 1.66 × 9 × 10−27 × 1016
= 1.66 × 9 × 10−11 𝐽
1.66×9×10−11
= 𝑒𝑉
1.6×10−19
8
= 9.315 × 10 𝑒𝑉
= 931.5 × 106 𝑒𝑉
= 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Mass defect: Observations:
This is an interesting observation. 1. Cyclic occurrences of peak at 2 He 4 ,
Mass of an atom can be measured using 4 Be 8 , 6 C12 , 8 O16 & 10 Ne 20 shows that
apparatus like Bainbridge mass these atoms are more stable than their
spectrometer. Mass can also be calculated neighbours.
from the number of constituent particles
2. The most stable element is Fe 56
and their masses. 26

But, in all atoms we find the which has BE/A value 8.8 MeV.
calculated mass is slightly higher than the 3. Elements having mass number 40
actual mass. The difference between the – 170 are stable and they have average
two is called ‘mass defect’. BE/A value of 8.5 MeV.
4. Nuclear fusion:
For an atom Z X A , mass defect (∆𝑚 ) is,
H 2 +1 H 2 → 2 He 4 + Q
∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝑍𝑚𝑒 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 1

Hereafter we consider only the BE/A of helium (7 MeV) is much

nucleus, for calculation purpose, higher than the BE/A of deuteron (1.1
Mass defect = Calculated mass – Actual MeV). By undergoing nuclear fusion
mass of nucleus the atom attains stability. Energy
∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 released (Q) is given by
𝑄 = (𝐵𝐸)𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − (𝐵𝐸)𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
Now, the question that naturally
comes to our mind is ‘What has happened = 7 × 4 − 2 × 2 × 1.1
= 28 − 2 × 2.2
to this mass?
= 28 − 4.4
This mass has got converted into
= 23.6 𝑀𝑒𝑉
energy which is called ‘binding
5. Nuclear fission:
energy’(BE).
U 235 + 0 n 1 → 56Ba 141 + 36 Kr 92 + 3 0 n 1 + Q
𝐵𝐸 = ∆𝑚 𝐶 2 , if ∆𝑚 is expressed in kg. 92

𝐵𝐸 = ∆𝑚 × 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉, if ∆𝑚 is expressed in BE/A of 92 U 235 is very less compared

amu. to BE/A of Ba 141 and Kr 92 .
56 36
𝐵𝐸 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀]𝐶 2
Stability is attained by nuclear fission.
We observe that the BE value 𝑄 = (𝐵𝐸)𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 − (𝐵𝐸)𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
increases as the size of the atom increases.
= 200 𝑀𝑒𝑉
But is it proportionate?
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Easy Physics:
Bain Bridge mass spectrometer: 210) are unstable and they emit 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾
rays to attain stability
The emission of radioactivity
cannot be controlled by physical or
chemical means.

At velocity selector
Singly ionized atoms having
the same velocity emerges out in Properties of 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 rays
undeflected path as the force by E is equal
𝜶 𝜷 𝜸
and opposite to the force by B. 4 These are These are EM
These are He
𝐸𝑞 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣 2
electrons rays of very
nucleus, having
𝐸 having charge short
𝑣= mass 4 amu and
𝐵 −𝑒 wavelength.
charge +2e
Has no mass
At evacuated chamber:
and no charge
The ions travel in circular path Deflected by E Deflected by E Not deflected
inside the uniform magnetic field and hit and B and B but in
the photographic plate, and leave a dark opposite
direction to
spot. The diameter of the semi-circular that of 𝛼
path can be measured. particles
Centripetal force = Lorentz force High ionization Medium Low ionization
𝑚𝑣 2 power ionization power
⟹ 𝑅
= 𝐵′𝑞𝑣 power
𝑚𝑣
𝑅
= 𝐵′𝑞 Low penetration Medium High
𝑚𝑣 = 𝐵′𝑞𝑅 power penetration penetration
𝐸 power power
𝑚 𝐵 = 𝐵′𝑞𝑅 Cause Cause Cause
𝐵𝐵′𝑞𝑅 fluorescence fluorescence fluorescence
𝑚= 𝐸
Mass of atom can be found using this
𝜶 decay:
equation.
X A → 2 He 4 + Y A-4
Strong Nuclear force: Z Z- 2

Very short range (10−15 𝑚) and When 𝛼 particle is emitted, the atomic
very strong attractive force. Exists number reduces by 2 and mass number
equally between, any two pairs of reduced by 4.
nucleons: 𝑛 − 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑝, 𝑝 − 𝑝. The total of atomic numbers on both
Weak Nuclear force: sides are equal
This is the cause of 𝛽 decay. 𝑍 =2+𝑍−2
Natural radioactivity: This implies the law of conservation of
Elements having atomic number electric charge
more than 82 (or mass number more than

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Easy Physics:
The total of mass numbers on both sides 𝜸 decay:
are also equal. Excited nucleus releases the
𝐴=4+𝐴−4 surplus energy. This does not change
But this does not imply the law of either the atomic number or the mass
conservation of mass but it implies that number of the atom.
the mass number (number of nucleons) is Radioactive law of disintegration:
conserved. The rate of disintegration depends on the
Mass of reactants (𝑚𝑟 ) > mass of sample size (population).
products (𝑚𝑝 ) 𝑑𝑁
∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
∆𝐸 = (𝑚𝑟 − 𝑚𝑝 ) × 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉, is the 𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
energy released. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
𝜷− decay: 𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡
Z X → −1e +
A 0
Z +1 Y +
A
∫
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
When a negative 𝛽 particle is emitted the log 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + 𝐶
atomic number increases by 1 and no when 𝑁 = 𝑁0 , 𝑡 = 0
change in mass number. log 𝑁0 = 0 + 𝐶
The electron emission is ∴ log 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + log 𝑁0
associated with emission of anti- log 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁

neutrino. 𝑁
0

𝜷+ decay: 𝑁0
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

Z X A → 1e 0 + Z −1 YA + 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
When a positive 𝛽 particle known as 𝑁 = 0 when 𝑡 = ∞
positron is emitted, the atomic number
𝑒 = 1, 𝑒 ∞ = ∞, 𝑒 −∞ = 0
0
decreases by 1 and no change in the mass
∴ The radioactive sample takes infinitely
number.
long time for complete disintegration.
neutron/proton (n/p) ratio of the Half life time (T)
nucleus is very important for its The time taken for 50% of the
stability. sample to get decayed is called half life
If neutron is in excess, then time (𝑇)
𝑁0
neutron decay occurs to attain the When 𝑁 = ,𝑡 = 𝑇
2
required n/p ratio 𝜆𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒
𝑁0 𝜆𝑇
−
= 𝑁0 𝑒
Neutron decays to a proton, 𝛽 2
1 𝜆𝑇
and antineutrino. = 𝑒
2
If proton is in excess, then 2 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑇
proton decay occurs to increase the 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒2 = 𝜆 𝑇
number of neutron and to attain the 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒2
𝑇=
required n/p ratio. 𝜆
2 .𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑒
= 𝜆
0.3010×2.303
Proton decays to a neutron, = 𝜆
positron and neutrino. 0.6931
𝑇= 𝜆

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Easy Physics:
Mean life time (𝝉) 𝑁 1 𝑛
= (2)
If the radioactive sample has 𝑛 𝑁0
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
atoms, the average life time of these atoms where, 𝑛 =
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
is called mean life time (𝜏) Law of conservation of momentum when
mathematical derivation gives a nuclei breaks into 2 parts,
1
𝜏=𝜆
𝑇 = 0.6931 𝜏
𝜏 = 1.443 𝑇

Total initial momentum = total final

momentum
0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
−𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2
⇒ The particles are thrown in opposite
directions with equal momentum.
Comparing magnitudes,
𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 𝑣
𝑚2
= 𝑣2
1

⇒ Smaller mass will be thrown at higher

velocity.
Regarding kinetic energy of particles,
Activity: 𝑝2
𝐾𝐸 = 2𝑚
𝑑𝑁
𝐴= 𝑑𝑡
1
⇒ 𝐾𝐸1 ∝ 𝑚 & 𝐾𝐸2 ∝ 𝑚
1
1 2
Unit of activity
as momentum of particles are equal.
1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/s
Smaller mass will have more kinetic
1 Rutherford = 106 disintegration/s
energy.
1 Curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration/s 𝐾𝐸1 𝑚
= 𝑚2
= the activity of 1 g of Ra 𝐾𝐸2 1

Additional formula When an atom emits a photon

𝜆𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒
𝑁 𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
=𝑒
𝑁
log 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 ____ (1)
0
1 𝜆𝑇
2
=𝑒 Initial momentum = final momentum
1
log 2 = −𝜆𝑇 ____ (2) ⇒ 0 = recoil momentum of atom +
log
𝑁 momentum of photon
(1) 𝑁0 𝑡
⇒ 1 =𝑇 ℎ𝑣
(2) log
2
0 = 𝑀𝑉 + 𝐶
𝑁 ℎ𝑣
log ⇒ −𝑀𝑉 =
𝑁0
1 =𝑛 𝐶
log ℎ𝑣
2
𝑁 1
−𝑉 = 𝑀𝐶
log 𝑁 = 𝑛 log 2
0 is the recoil velocity
𝑁 1 𝑛
log 𝑁 = log (2)
0

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Easy Physics:
1932, Be 9 + 2 He 4 → 6 C12 + 0 n 1
for a photon 4
Chadwick emitted particles are
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = 𝑚𝐶 2 = ℎ𝑣 = called neutrons
𝜆
𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ 𝑚 ≃ 𝑚𝑝 , 𝑞 = 0
𝑝 = 𝑚𝐶 = 𝐶 = 𝐶 =𝜆
𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ
Properties:
𝑚 = 𝐶 2 = 𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝜆 ❖ Not present only in 1 He1
1
Recoil energy = 2 𝑚𝑉 2 ❖ 𝑚 ≃ 𝑚𝑝 , 𝑞 = 0 ⇒ not deflected by
1
= 2 𝑚𝑉 2 E or B
1 ℎ2 𝑣 2 ❖ Decay 0 n1 → 1P1 + −1e0 +  , T = 13 min,
= 𝑚
2 𝑚2 𝐶 2 ❖ High penetration
ℎ2 𝑣 2
= 2𝑚𝐶 2 Energy based classification:
❖ Slow neutrons 0 to 1000 eV
Energy calculation in nuclear reaction ❖ Thermal neutrons 0.025 eV
Consider, ❖ Fast neutrons 0.5 MeV to 10 MeV
Radio carbon 14
7 N +0 n → 7C + 1H1
238
14 1
92𝑈 → 2 He4 + 90 Th
234
+ Q
dating:
The energy released in the reaction (𝑻𝟏/𝟐 = 𝟓𝟓𝟕𝟎 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔)
12 14
6 C : 6C :106 :1
𝑄 = (𝑚𝑟 − 𝑚𝑝 ) × 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ____ (1)
age of specimen can be
𝑄 = (𝐵𝐸)𝑝 × (𝐵𝐸)𝑟 ____ (2) estimated
This energy is in the form of kinetic Nuclear fission:
energy of the products 1939, Otto Hahn
92 U
235
+ 0n1 → 56Ba141
and strassaman-
𝑄 = (𝐾𝐸)∝ + (𝐾𝐸) 𝑇ℎ + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Q
breaking up of
1
𝐾𝐸 ∝ 𝑚 heavier nucleus
𝐾 release large
⇒ (𝐾𝐸)∝ = amount of energy 92 U
235
+ 0n1 → 54Xe140
4
𝐾 + 38Sr 94 + 2 0n1 + Q
⇒ (𝐾𝐸) 𝑇ℎ = 234 Energy per fission
𝐾 𝐾 of = 200 MeV
𝑄= + 234
4 -number of neutrons multiply
Uncontrolled chain
1 1
= 𝐾 [4 + 234] reaction rapidly in geometric
progression
238
= 𝐾 [4×234] 1:3:9:27:81
𝑄×4×234 -results in terrific explosion
𝐾= called atom bomb.
238
234 𝑄 Controlled chain -principle of nuclear reactors.
∴ (𝐾𝐸)∝ = reaction -number of neutrons producing
238
4𝑄 nucleon fission maintained at
(𝐾𝐸) 𝑇ℎ = 238
1:1:1 …
Neutron: -out of 3 neutrons, 1 escapes, 1
is captured by 𝑈 238 to become
1. discovery Berillium bombarded by 𝑃𝑢239 and only one produces
𝛼 particle gives highly fission of 𝑈 235 .
penetrating radiation, Types of Nuclear
which is not deflected by reactors:
electric or magnetic 1. Research reactor -supply of neutrons,
production of radio-isotopes
fields.
2. Production reactor -Conversion of fertile (𝑈 238 ) to
fissile (𝑃𝑢239 )

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Easy Physics:
3. Power reactor -Conversion of nuclear energy Nuclear fusion: Lighter nuclei combine to form
to electric energy heavier nucleus can be carried
Types of power out only at extremely high
temperature (107 𝐾)
reactors:
1 H + 1H → 2He4 + 0n1 +
3 2
1. BWR Boiling Water Reactor
Example:
2. PWR Pressurised Water Reactor energy
3. PHWR Pressurised Heavy Water
Reactor
4. FBR Fast Breeder Reactor ❖ When high energy photon hits an
Natural Uranium
atom produces electron – positron
consists of pair. This is known as pair
𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟖 99.28% production, which is an example
Fertile (abundant – but not
easily breakable) for conversion of energy to mass.
𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 0.72%
Fissile (breakable by neutron of ❖ When an energetic electron collides
any energy)
with an energetic position, both
Fuel:
PWR enriched 𝑈 238 (2 to 4%) together get converted into a
PHWR Uranium oxide photon. This is known as
FBR Carbides of Uranium and
Plutonium
annihilation of matter, an example
(Kamini)
𝑈 233 kalpakkam mini reactor for conversion of mass to energy.
Moderator: slows down fast neutron
Example: (2MeV) to thermal neutron
(0.025 eV)
Water, heavy water, graphite
Neutron source: beryllium with radium (gives
𝛼 particle)
4 Be
9
+ 2He4 → 6C12 + 0n1

Control rods: When pushed in, they absorb

Example: neutrons and reduce the rate of
the chain reaction.
Cadmium,boron carbide(𝐵4 𝐶)

Coolant: Takes the heat energy from the

Example: reactor core and rotates the
turbine.
PWR – Water, PHWR – heavy
water, FBR – Liquid sodium
-Possess large specific heat
capacity and high boiling point
-boiling point of liquid sodium
1000o 𝐶
Neutron reflector Reflects the neutron back to
take part in the chain reaction,
there by increases the rate of the
reaction.
Example: PWR – Water, PHWR – heavy
water, FBR – depleted Uranium
(less than 0.7% 𝑈 235 ) or thorium
(90Th
232
)
Breeder reactor Converts fertile substance to
fissile substance 𝑈 235 to 𝑃𝑢239 ,
𝑇ℎ232 to 𝑈 233

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Easy Physics:

Time Sample Sample Ratio Ratio % %

taken remaining decayed remaining decayed remaining decayed
𝑵
(N) (𝑵𝟎 − 𝑵) 𝑵
𝑵
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (𝟏 − )
(𝑵/𝑵𝟎 ) 𝑵𝟎 𝑵𝟎
(𝟏 − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑵𝟎
T 𝑁0 𝑁0 1 1 50% 50%
2 2 2 2

2T 𝑁0 3𝑁0 1 3 25% 75%

4 4 4 4

3T 𝑁0 7𝑁0 1 7 12.5% 87.5%

8 8 8 8

4T 𝑁0 15𝑁0 1 15 6.25% 93.75%

16 16 16 16

𝝉 𝑁0 𝑁0 1 1 37% 63%
𝑁0 − 1−
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒

𝟐𝝉 𝑁0 𝑁0 1 1 13.5% 86.5%
𝑁0 − 1−
𝑒2 𝑒2 𝑒2 𝑒2

𝑻 𝑁0 𝑁0 1 1 70.7% 29.3%
𝑁0 − 1−
𝟐 √2 √2 √2 √2

𝝉 𝑁0 𝑁0 1 1 60.6% 39.4%
𝟐 𝑁0 − 1−
√𝑒 √𝑒 √𝑒 √𝑒

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