Topic 2.

0 Introduction to Process Control Dynamics

Summary:

2.1Introduction
2.2Motivation and Terminology of Automatic Process Control
2.3Design Aspects of a Process Control System
2.4Hardware for a Process Control System

2.1Introduction

The primary objective of a process control is to maintain a process at the:

 desired operating conditions,
 safely and
 efficiently, while satisfying environmental and product quality
requirements.
Process control is concerned with how to achieve these goals.
In large-scale, integrated processing plants, e.g. oil refineries or ethylene plants,
thousands of process variables, e.g. composition, T, P are measured and
controlled.

Why do we need Process Control?

Effective process control is required to maintain safe operations, quality products,

and business viability.
Objectives of a Process Control:
1. Safety
The primary purpose of a Process Control system is safety:
 Personnel safety,
 Environmental safety and
 Equipment safety.
The safety of plant personnel and the community is the highest priority in any
operation.
An example of safety in a common heat exchanger process is the installation of a
pressure relief valve in the steam supply.
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Other examples of safety incorporated into process control systems are a pressure
switch that does not allow a pump to over pressurize a pipe or a temperature
switch that does not allow the fluid flowing through a heat exchanger to overheat.
2. Quality
In addition to safety, process control systems are central to maintaining product
quality.
In blending and batching operations, control systems maintain the proper ratio of
ingredients to deliver a consistent product.
They tightly regulate temperatures to deliver consistent solids in cooking systems.
Without this type of control, products would vary and undermine quality.
3. Profit
When safety and quality concerns are met, process control objectives can be
focused on profit.
All processes experience variations and product quality demands that we operate
within constraints.
A batch system may require ± 0.5% tolerance on each ingredient addition to
maintain quality.
A cook system may require ± 0.5 degrees on the exit temperature to maintain
quality.
Profits will be maximized the closer the process is operated to these constraints.
The real challenge in process control is to do so safely without compromising
product quality.
The foundation of process control is processing understanding.

What is a Process?

It is the conversion of feed materials to products using chemical and physical

operations (continuous, batch and semi-batch)

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 Fig 2.1 Process (open loop process)

What is Process Control?

Process control is the act of controlling a final control element to change the
manipulated variable to maintain the process variable at a desired Set Point.
The 3 important types of process variables:

1. Controlled Variables (CVs): process variables that are controlled, the

desired value of a CV is referred as its set – point (SP)
2. Manipulated Variables (MVs): process variables that can be adjusted in
order to keep the CVs at or near the SPs (eg. Flow rates).
3. Disturbance Variables (DVs): process variables that affect the CVs but
cannot be manipulated, they are related to changes in the operating
environment of the process (feed conditions or ambient temperature).
The specification of CVs, MVs and DVs is a critical step in developing a control
system.
The selection should be based on process knowledge, experience and control
objectives.

Fig 2.2 shows a block diagram of a process with a final control element and
sensors to measure the manipulated variable and process variable.

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Fig 2.2 Block diagram of a process with a final control element and sensors to
measure the manipulated and process variables

Basics of Process Control

What is Open Loop Control?

In open loop control (fig 2.1) the controller output is not a function of the process
variable.
In open loop control we are not concerned that a particular Set Point be
maintained, the controller output is fixed at a value until it is changed by an
operator.
Many processes are stable in an open loop control mode and will maintain the
process variable at a value in the absence of a disturbance.
Disturbances are uncontrolled changes in the process inputs or resources.
However, all processes experience disturbances and with open loop control this
will always result in deviations in the process variable; and there are certain
processes that are only stable at a given set of conditions and disturbances will
cause these processes to become unstable.
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What is Closed Loop Control?

In closed loop control the controller output is determined by difference between

the process variable and the Set Point.
Closed loop control is also called feedback or regulatory control
The output of a closed loop controller is a function of the error.
Error is the deviation of the process variable from the Set Point and is defined as:
E = SP - PV.

Fig 2.3 Closed loop system

What are the Modes of Closed Loop Control?

Closed loop control can be Manual, On-Off, PID, Advanced PID (ratio, cascade,
feed-forward) or Model Based depending on the algorithm that determines the
controller output based on the error.
Manual Control: an operator directly manipulates the controller output to the
final control element to maintain a Set Point.
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On-Off control provides a controller output of either on or off in response to
error.
PID control provides a controller output that modulates from 0 to 100% in
response to error.

What are the Basic Elements of Process Control?

Controlling a process requires knowledge of four basic elements, the process

itself, the sensor that measures the process value, the final control element that
changes the manipulated variable, and the controller.Control in one form or
another is an essential part of any Chemical Engineering Operation.
In all processes there is necessity of keeping flows, Ps, Ts, compositions, etc
within certain limits for reasons of safety or specifications.
Automatic control highly desirable as to manual operation.
Automatic control systems enable us to operate our processes in a safe and
profitable manner.
Control systems achieve this "safe and profitable" objective by continually
measuring process variables such as temperature, pressure, level, flow and
concentration - and taking actions such as opening valves, slowing down pumps
and turning up heaters - all so that the measured process variables are maintained
at operator specified set point values.
Control of a process is accomplished by measuring the variable required to be
controlled (controlled variable), comparing it with the value at which it is desired
to be maintained (desired value or set point) and adjusting it to the desired
variable (manipulated variable).
Safety First
The overriding motivation for automatic control is safety, which encompasses the
safety of people, the environment and equipment.
The safety of plant personnel and people in the community are the highest
priority in any plant operation. The design of a process and associated control
system must always make human safety the primary objective.
The trade-off between safety of the environment and safety of equipment is
considered on a case by case basis. At the extremes, the control system of a multi-
billion dollar nuclear power facility will permit the entire plant to become ruined
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rather than allow significant radiation to be leaked to the environment.
On the other hand, the control system of a coal-fired power plant may permit a
large cloud of smoke to be released to the environment rather than allowing
damage to occur to, say, a single pump or compressor worth a few thousand
dollars.
The Profit Motive
When people, the environment and plant equipment are properly protected, our
control objectives can focus on the profit motive. Automatic control systems offer
strong benefits in this regard.
Plant-level control objectives motivated by profit include:
▪ meeting final product specifications
▪ minimizing waste production
▪ minimizing environmental impact
▪ minimizing energy use
▪ maximizing overall production rate
It can be most profitable to operate as close as possible to these minimum or
maximum objectives.
For example, our customers often set our product specifications, and it is essential
that we meet them if failing to do so means losing a sale.
Whether it is a product specification, energy usage, production rate, or other
objective, approaching these targets ultimately translates into operating the
individual process units within the plant as close as possible to predetermined set
point values for temperature, pressure, level, flow, concentration and the other
measured process variables.
Loops (diagrams)
Single loops (Open loops and closed loops: feedback and feedforward
mechanisms)
Multiple- loops (cascade control mechanism, selective controls, split-range
controls)

2.2 Incentives for Chemical Process Control

• A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat

exchangers, pumps, distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, tanks,
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 etc.), integrated with each other in a systematic and rational manner.
• The plant's overall objective is to convert certain raw materials (input
feedstock) into desired products in the most economical way.
• During its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several requirements
imposed by its designers and the general technical, economic and social
conditions in the presence of ever-changing external influences
(disturbances/perturbations).

A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat exchangers,

pumps, distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, tanks, etc.), integrated with
each other in a systematic and rational manner.
The plant's overall objective is to convert certain raw materials (input feedstock)
into desired products in the most economical way.
During its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several requirements imposed
by its designers and the general technical, economic and social conditions in the
presence of ever-changing external influences (disturbances/perturbations).

Some of such requirements are:

Safety: The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement, for the
well-being of the people in the plant and its continued contribution to the
economic development.
►the operating conditions (pressures, temperatures, concentration of chemicals,
etc. ) should always be within allowable limits.
Production specifications: The plant should produce the desired amounts and
quality of the final products.
► We may require the production of two million kgs of ethylene per day, of
99.5% purity, from an ethylene plant, therefore, a control system is needed to
ensure that the production level (2 million kgs per day) and the purity
specifications (99.5% ethylene) are satisfied.
Environmental regulations: Various federal and state laws may specify that the
temperatures, concentrations of chemicals and flowrates of the effluents from a
plant be within certain limits.
►amounts of SOX , NOX (emissions) ejected to the atmosphere, and the quality
of water effluents to a river or a lake.
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Operational constraints: The various types of equipment used in a chemical
plant have constraints inherent to their operation.
► Pumps must maintain a certain net positive suction head; tanks should not
overflow or go dry; distillation columns should not be flooded: the temperature in
a catalytic reactor should not exceed an upper limit since the catalyst will be
destroyed.
Control systems are needed to satisfy all these operational constraints.
Economics: The operation of a plant must conform to the market conditions, i.e.
the availability of raw materials and the demand of the final products.
►should be as economic as possible in its utilization of RMs, energy, capital and
human labor.
►operating conditions to be controlled (optimum levels of min operating cost, or
max profit; etc.)

All the above requirements require need for a continuous monitoring of the
operation of a chemical plant and an external intervention (control) to guarantee
the satisfaction of the operational objectives.
►accomplished through a rational arrangement of various equipment (measuring
devices, valves, controllers, computers) and human intervention (plant designers,
plant operators), which constitutes the control system.

There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called to
satisfy:
 Suppress the influence of external disturbances,
 ensure the stability of a chemical process, and
 optimize the performance of a chemical process

2.2.1Suppressing Influence of External Disturbances

Most common objective of a controller in Chemical Plant is to suppress the

influence of the external disturbances.
► have effects on a reactors, separators, heat exchangers, compressors, etc., and
therefore need to introduce a control mechanism.

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Example 2.1 - Controlling the Operation of a Stirred Tank Heater (STH)
Consider the tank heater system shown in Figure 2.1. A liquid enters the tank
with a
flowrate Fi (m3/min), and a temperature Ti (°C), where it is heated with steam
(having a
flowrate Fs, kg/min).
Let F and T be the flowrate and temperature of the stream leaving the tank.
The tank is considered to be well stirred, which implies that the temperature of
the effluent is equal to the temperature of the liquid in the tank.

Fig 2.1Stirred tank heater (STH)

a. Operational objectives of this heater are:

to keep the effluent temperature T at a desired value Ts
to keep the volume of the liquid in the tank at a desired value Vs

b. External factors/disturbances on the operation of the heater are:

changes in feed flow rate and temperature (Fi and Ti)
changes in the steam flow rate and temperature (Fst and Tst)

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Fig 2.2 Feedback temperature control of a tank heater

Need to maintain: T = Ts and V=Vs, some form of control action is needed to

alleviate the impact of the changing disturbances and keep T and V at the desired
values (fig 2.2.)
Fig2.2 demonstrates a control action to keep T = Ts when Ti or Fi changes.
A thermocouple measures the temperature T of the liquid in the tank.
• T is compared with the desired value Ts yielding a deviation / error: ε =Ts -
T.
• The value of the deviation/error ε is sent to a control mechanism S for
rectification which decides what must be done in order for the temperature
T to return back to the desired value Ts
The desired value Ts is called the Set Point and is supplied externally by the
person in charge of production.
Returning to the tank heater example, we can use a different control arrangement
to maintain
T = Ts when Ti changes. Measure the temperature of the Inlet stream T i and open
or close the steam valve to provide more or less steam.
Such control configuration is called Feedforward control and is shown in Figure
2.3.
The feedforward control does not wait until the effect of the disturbances has
been felt by the system, but acts appropriately before the external disturbance
affects the system, anticipating what its effect will be (works in an anticipatory
manner).

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Fig 2.3 Feedforward control for STH

The suppression of the impact that disturbances have on the operating behavior of
processing units is one of the main reasons for the usage of control in the
chemical industry.

2.2 Ensure Stability of a Process

Consider the behavior of the variable x shown in Fig 2.4, at time t = to disturbed
by some external factors but as the time progresses the value of x returns to its
initial value to stay.
If x is a process variable like T, P, concentration, flowrate, etc., we say that the
process is stable or self-regulating and needs no external intervention for its
stabilization.
It is clear that no control mechanism is needed to force x to return to its initial
value.

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Fig 2.4 Response of a stable system (self-regulating) Fig 2.5 Alternative response
of unstable system

In contrast to the above behavior, the variable y shown in Figure 2.5 does not
return to, its initial value after it is disturbed by external influences.
Processes whose variables follow the pattern indicated by y in Figure 2.5 (curves
a,b,c) are called unstable processes and require external control for the
stabilization of their behavior.
The explosion of a hydrocarbon duel with air is such an unstable system.
Riding a bicycle is an attempt to stabilize an unstable system and we attain that
by pedaling, steering and leaning our body right or left.

2.3 Optimizing the Performance of a Chemical Process

Safety and the satisfaction of the production specifications are the 2 principal/
cardinal operational objectives for a chemical plant.
Once these are achieved, the next goal is how to make the operation of the plant
more profitable.
Need to be able to change the operation of the plant (flowrates, pressures,
concentrations, temperatures) in such a way that an economic objective (profit) is
always maximized.
This task is undertaken by the automatic controllers of the plant and its human
operators.

Example 2.2 - Optimizing the Performance of a Batch Reactor

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Fig 2.6 BR with two consecutive reactions

Consider a batch reactor where the following two consecutive reactions take
place:
A→B→C
1 2
Both reactions are assumed to be endothermic with first order kinetics.
The heat required for the reactions is supplied by steam which flows through the
jacket around the reactor (Fig 2.6).
The desired product is B while C is an undesired product/waste.
The economic objective for the operation of the batch reactor is to maximize the
profit Φ over a period of time tR, i.e.
𝑡𝑅
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝛷 = ∫ {[𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐵] − [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
0
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴]} 𝑑𝑡 − −1

where :
revenue from product B = p cB(t)
cost of raw material A = crcA(0)
cost of steam = ch Q(t)
p = price per kg-mole of product B
c r = price per kg-mole of raw material A
ch = cost per kg of steam
cA (0) = concentration of A at the beginning of the batch reaction
tR = the period of reaction.

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The only variable that we can change freely to maximize the profit is the steam
flowrate Q(t) which can vary with time. The steam flowrate will affect the
temperature in the batch reactor
and the temperature in turn will affect the rates of the desired and undesired
reactions,
The question is how should we vary Q(t) with time so that the profit Φ is
maximized.
Let us examine some special policies with respect to Q(t).
If Q(t) is given the largest value that we can for the whole reaction period tR, then
the temperature of the reacting mixture will take the largest value that is possible.
Initially, when CA is large, we will have high yields of B but we will also pay
more for the steam. As time goes on and the concentration of B increases the
yield of C also increases. Consequently, towards the end of the reaction period
the temperature must decrease, necessitating decrease in the steam flowrate.
If the steam flowrate is kept at its lowest value, i.e. Q(t) = 0, for the entire
reaction period tR, we will not have any steam cost, but also we will not have any
production of B.

A control system is needed which will:

(a) compute the best steam flowrate for every time
during the reaction period and
(b) will adjust the valve (inserted in the steam line) so that the steam flowrate
takes its best value (computed above in (a))
Such problems as the above are known as optimal control problems.
This example indicates that the control of the steam flowrate is not used to ensure
the stability of the reactor or to eliminate the effect of external disturbances on the
reactor but to optimize its economic performance.

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