Gateway to Success

Introductory notes to MATH1042A

First Year Semester 1 Course: Engineering Mathematics
2022

School of Mathematics
University of the Witwatersrand
Contents

1 Polynomials and rational functions 2

1.1 Polynomials and rational functions defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Roots of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Exponential and logarithmic functions 11

2.1 Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.2 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.3 Exponential and logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3 Absolute value function 16

3.1 Absolute value in geometric terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2 Absolute value in algebraic terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.3 Graphing absolute value functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4 Trigonometric functions 21

4.1 The six trigonometric ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.2 Graphing trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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Lesson 1

Polynomials and rational functions

1.1 Polynomials and rational functions defined

A function a is a polynomial if
n
X
a (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · + an xn = ar x r ,
r=0

where n is a nonnegative integer.

1. x is called the variable (may be any letter).

2. ar is a real constant called the coefficient of xr .

If the leading coefficient an ̸= 0 and n > 0, then n is called the degree of a, denoted
deg(a(x)) = n. We refer to a0 as the constant term. It has degree 0 and can be written as
a0 x 0 .

Note. For a function in x to be a polynomial, the exponents of x must be nonnegative

integers. The functions
√ 7
f (x) = 3 − x−1 and f (x) = 5 + x + x 8

are not polynomials. Furthermore, the standard form of a polynomial is in ascending or de-
scending powers of the variable.

Example 1.1.1. Let f (x) = 1, g(x) = x2 + 5 and h(x) = x + 1. Then

deg(f (x)) = 0, deg(g(x)) = 2 and deg(h(x)) = 1.

1.1.1 Basic operations

Addition and subtraction. To add (subtract) polynomials, we simply add (subtract) any
like terms together (from each other, note the order).

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Example 1.1.2. Let p(x) = x2 − x + 1 and q(x) = −3x − 1. Then

p(x) + q(x) = x2 − x + 1 + (−3x − 1) = x2 + (−x − 3x) + (1 − 1) = x2 − 4x;

q(x) − p(x) = −3x − 1 − (x2 − x + 1) = −x2 + (−3x + x) + (−1 − 1) = −x2 − 2x − 2.

Multiplication. Multiply each term in one polynomial by each term in the other polynomial.

Example 1.1.3. Let a(x) = x − 1 and b(x) = x2 + 2. Then

a(x)b(x) = (x − 1)(x2 + 2) = x(x2 + 2) − 1(x2 + 2) = x3 + 2x − x2 − 2 = x3 − x2 + 2x − 2.

Division. To divide one polynomial with another we use the long division algorithm. We
call the polynomial being divided the dividend and the one we are dividing by the divisor,
which must have degree equal to or lower than the dividend’s degree. The answer is called the
quotient. If the divisor does not divide exactly into the dividend, i.e., the divisor is not a factor
of the dividend, then what is left is called the remainder.

Example 1.1.4. Divide 2x5 + 3x3 − 2x2 − x + 5 by 2x2 + 1.

x3 +x−1
2

5 3 2
2x + 1 2x + 3x − 2x − x + 5
− 2x5 − x3
2x3 − 2x2 − x
− 2x3 −x
2
− 2x − 2x + 5
2x2 +1
− 2x + 6
Step 1: Divide the leading terms and write the answer at the top.

Step 2: Multiply the divisor by the result obtained in step 1 and subtract the product obtained
in this step from the original dividend.

Step 3: Repeat the previous two steps until you are left with an expression that is of lower de-
gree than the divisor. The process is done once such an expression is obtained. This expression
is called the remainder.

This we can write as

2x5 + 3x3 − 2x2 − x + 5 = 2x2 + 1 x3 + x − 1 − 2x + 6

or

2x5 + 3x3 − 2x2 − x + 5 3

−2x + 6 3

2x − 6
2
= x + x − 1 + 2
= x + x − 1 − 2 .
2x + 1 2x + 1 2x + 1

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Example 1.1.5. Given that a(x) = 30x4 − 22x2 − 28 and b(x) = x2 , find a(x) ÷ b(x).

Recall that a rational function is the quotient of two polynomials, where the denominator
has a degree of at least 1.

Multiplication of rational functions is straight forward - multiply the numerators with each
other and the denominators with each other

f (x) h(x) f (x)h(x)

× = .
g(x) k(x) g(x)k(x)

Addition or subtraction of rational functions require that we have the same denominators
as you would when adding or subtracting fractions involving numbers

f (x) h(x) f (x)k(x) h (x) g(x) f (x) k (x) + h (x) g(x)

+ = + = .
g(x) k(x) g(x)k(x) k (x) g(x) k (x) g(x)
x−3
Example 1.1.6. Given that = 2, solve for x.
x+2

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Example 1.1.7. Determine the value(s) of x for which the following inequality holds,
x−3
> 2.
x+2

2x + 1 2
Example 1.1.8. Given that − = 1, solve for x.
x−1 x−3

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Example 1.1.9. Determine the value(s) of x for which the following inequality holds,
2x + 1 2
− < 1.
x−1 x−3

2x − 5 3
Example 1.1.10. Given that = 2 , solve for x.
x+1 x +x

Example 1.1.11. Determine the value(s) of x for which the following inequality holds,
2x − 5 3
≥ 2 .
x+1 x +x

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 What would change if the inequality sign changed from ≥ to ≤?

1.1.2 Exercises – Polynomials and rational functions

1. Divide p(x) by d(x), where

(a) p(x) = x4 + 3x3 + x + 1; d(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 2;

(b) p(x) = x4 + 1; d(x) = 2x2 + 1.

2. Determine the value(s) of x for which the following inequalities hold,

x−3
(a) ≥ 0;
x+1
2x + 1
(b) ≤ 3;
x−5
294x + 504
(c) 30x + 83 + 2 < 0.
x −x−6

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1.2 Roots of polynomials

We have two theorems that provide us with information on the roots of a polynomial.
Theorem 1.2.1 (Factor theorem). Let p (x) be an n-th degree polynomial, n ≥ 1. If p (k) = 0,
then x − k is a factor of p(x).

Proof. One can write a polynomial p(x) as the sum of a product of a divisor d(x) and a
quotient q(x) and some remainder r(x), i.e.,

p (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x) , where deg(r(x)) < deg(d(x)) ≤ deg(p(x)).

Let d(x) = x − k. Then d (k) = 0, and p (k) = 0 · q (k) + r (k) = r(k). Since p (k) = 0, it
follows that r (k) = 0. Hence
p(x)
= q (x) , or equivalently p(x) = d(x)q(x),
d(x)
which means that d(x) and q(x) are factors of p(x). Thus x − k is a factor of p(x).
Example 1.2.2. Given that p(3) = 0, where p(x) = x3 −6x2 −x+30, factorise p(x) completely.

Theorem 1.2.3 (Rational roots theorem). Let p (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , with a0 ̸= 0,
be an n-th degree polynomial with integer coefficients. If kℓ is a rational root of p (x) (i.e.,
p kℓ = 0), where kℓ is in lowest terms (k and ℓ have no common factors), then k is a factor of

a0 and ℓ is a factor of an .

k
Proof. If ℓ
is a rational zero, in lowest terms, of p(x), then
   n  n−1  
k k k k
p = an + an−1 + · · · + a1 + a0 = 0,
ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ
from which follows
an k n + an−1 k n−1 ℓ + · · · + a1 kℓn−1 + a0 ℓn = 0,
or equivalently
k an k n−1 + an−1 k n−2 ℓ + · · · + a1 ℓn−1 = −a0 ℓn .

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 Since k is a factor of the LHS it must be a factor of the RHS as well, but since k and ℓ
have no factor in common, k must be a factor of a0 . A similar proof shows that ℓ is a factor of
an .

k
By the Factor theorem we know that in the case where ℓ
is a zero of a polynomial p(x), it
follows that (ℓx − k) is a factor of p(x).

Example 1.2.4. Find all real roots of p(x) = 2x5 + 7x4 − 18x2 − 8x + 8 = 0.

Using the Rational roots theorem, we know that the possible numerators of the roots must
be factors of 8, hence ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8; and possible denominators of the roots must be
factors of 2, hence ±1, ±2.

This gives the following possibilities for rational roots of p(x): ± 21 , ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8.

Using the Factor theorem, it follows from

 
1
p = 2(2)−5 + 7(2)−4 − 18(2)−2 − 8(2)−1 + 8
2
1 7 18 8 1 17 16
= + − − +8= − + = 0,
16 16 4 2 2 2 2
that x − 12 is a factor of p(x).

We use long division (you can also use synthetic division), to get

2x4 + 8x3 + 4x2 − 16x − 16

1


x− 2
2x5 + 7x4 − 18x2 − 8x + 8
− 2x5 + x4
8x4
− 8x4 + 4x3
4x3 − 18x2
− 4x3 + 2x2
− 16x2 − 8x
16x2 − 8x
− 16x + 8
16x − 8
0

from which follows that

 
1
x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 − 8x − 8 .


p(x) = 2 x −
2

It is easy to see that x = −2 is a root of the quotient polynomial and hence that (x + 2) is a

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factor of it. Again making use of long division, we get
 
1
(x + 2) x3 + 2x2 − 2x − 4


p(x) = 2 x −
2
 
1
(x + 2) x2 (x + 2) − 2(x + 2)


=2 x−
2
 
1
(x + 2)2 x2 − 2


=2 x−
2
√  √ 
 
1 
=2 x− (x + 2)2 x − 2 x + 2 .
2

This gives
1 √
x= , x = −2 and x = ± 2
2
as solutions to the original equation.

1.2.1 Exercises – Factor and Rational roots theorem

1. Solve the following equations. Use the Rational roots theorem and Factor theorem to
identify possible factors. Use long division, not synthetic division. No calculators allowed.

(a) 30x3 + 53x2 + 31x + 6 = 0;

(b) 24x4 + 20x3 − 30x2 − 5x + 6;

2. According to the Rational roots theorem, if kℓ is a rational root of p (x) = an xn +

an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 = 0, with a0 ̸= 0, where kℓ is in lowest terms, then k is a factor of a0
and ℓ is a factor of an , i.e., ℓx − k is a factor of p(x). Does this mean that all the roots
of the polynomial will be rational? Does it mean that the only roots of the polynomial
will be those identifiable by the theorem? Discuss this with a partner and use examples
to support your claims.

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