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Power Quality
A Power Quality Primer
Mission
Who We Are
Press Room Overview Techniques That Help
Contacts What is Power Quality? Harmonics
Membership What is Electrical Grounding General Wiring
Members Entry Why Grounded Systems are Preferred Grounding Considerations
Sensitive Electronic Equipment Lightning
The Switched-Mode Power Supply Conclusions
The Effects of Non-Linearity on 3-Phase
Architecture
Systems
Automotive
Electrical
Overview
Building Wire
Energy Efficiency The proliferation of computers and other sensitive devices throughout our manufacturing
Power Quality and office environment has fostered the need to design the electrical systems of
Tube, Pipe & Fittings buildings with an eye toward power quality issues. There have been numerous books There are new wiring
and articles concerning diagnosis and remediation of power quality problems in existing practices recommended
Fuel Gas
structures after these problems have manifested themselves. to achieve a high level
Industrial
Marine of power quality.
The primary focus of this presentation will be wiring and grounding techniques and
Machined Products Are you ready for the
practices that are recommended to be part of the design of new or renovated structures.
Telecommunications electrical needs of today
These practices will help prevent power quality problems from occurring in the first
and tomorrow?
place, or diminish their effect to the point that they are not significant.
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What is Power Quality
Find Suppliers Of
Copper The term "power quality" means different things to different people. One definition is the
Copper Data Center relative frequency and severity of deviations in the incoming power supplied to electrical
Copper Topics Do you have a Good
equipment from the customary, steady, 60 Hz, sinusoidal waveform of voltage or
Market Data current. These deviations may affect the safe or reliable operation of equipment such as Power Quality Story to
Publications List computers. Tell?
Standards & Engineers, Building
Properties Thus, while not having a strict basis of measurement, terms like "poor power quality" Operators, Electrical
Applications generally mean there is sufficient deviation from norms in the power supply to cause Contractors, Plant
Directory equipment mis-operation or premature failure. "Good power quality", conversely, means Operations Personnel:
there is a low level of such deviations or mis-operations. CDA is interested in
hearing how your
Copper Through The Because the sensitivity to such deviations varies from one piece of equipment to company has saved
Ages another, what may be considered poor power quality to one device may be perfectly money by choosing
The Statue Of Liberty acceptable power quality to another. copper.
Copper Production Find out more... <more>
The History Of Poor power quality affects the reliable operation of computers and computer-based
Copper In The U.S. equipment, which are now so ubiquitous. Often more important than the physical effect To order power quality
60 Centuries Of on the equipment is the loss of productivity resulting from computer equipment failure, educational and
Copper mis-calculations and downtime. In fact, it has been estimated that the total cost to US technical publications,
Copper Facts businesses of this lost productivity is a staggering $15-30 billion per year. A recent click on the image
survey by E-Source indicated that, while most respondents did not calculate the cost of below:
their annual losses due to power quality (or may even erroneously attribute power quality
glitches to software or hardware causes), roughly a third of those that did report a loss
1
figure said it exceeded $1 million per year .
Electrical &
The vast majority of power quality problems in a building originate within the same
building. The Institute of Electrical And Electronic Engineers (IEEE), various government
agencies and other organizations have been studying these problems and effects for
several years. As a result, they have issued design guidelines and recommended
practices that are known to greatly reduce, if not eliminate, the incidence and severity of
power quality related problems.

In many cases, simply installing enhanced electrical systems and better grounding
systems will prevent (or cure) the problem. Many of the simple techniques explored in
this document are relatively inexpensive to install during construction, or during major
building renovation. Further, since the use of a particular building, or area within a

1 de 10
 Communications building, may vary considerably over the years, the recommended infrastructure
Wiring improvements will serve to make the building more useful over time, despite changes in
Plumbing, Heating & tenants, end uses or equipment.
Cooling
Architecture, Lighting Ten or more years ago, few builders and electrical designers could imagine the level of
& Decor computerization we find today in buildings of every sort. Who could have foreseen a PC
Environment & on every desk? Business computers were large machines located in special "computer
Health rooms". Lighting fixtures had low harmonics output. Telephones were hard-wired. Motors
Cookware & ran only at their design speed. An office at home was a rarity. Laser printers were
Decorations uncommon. And, considering all this, who can predict what the future holds with respect
Copper & Kids to electronics?
Do-it-yourself and
Crafts Generally speaking, by following generally well-known formulae for electrical loads to be
Innovations & expected per given floor area, the designer of past decades was reasonably assured of
Technology designing an adequate electrical installation that could be expected to serve the needs
of the building and its occupants well into the future. There was seldom a need to be
concerned about harmonics, or transients. But time, progress, and
micro-computerization marched on.
Recycling Copper
Copper and Human How often does a power quality problem arise? According to a study of 112 sites of
Health differing location, size and type, performed by National Power of Neceda, WI, the
Copper In Drinking average site had 106 disruption events per month, with the worst location having over
Water 2
4,000 such events . Most disruptions show up in random, difficult-to-reproduce ways,
Copper and the such as a PC that locks up, a PBX that loses calls or a motor that fails prematurely.
Natural Environment
According to the Electric Power Research Institute, as much as 80% of power quality
3
problems relate to inadequate wiring or grounding, so as some power quality issues are
examined below, particular emphasis will be placed on wiring and grounding.

What is Electrical Grounding

The term "ground" refers to the earth, or a large body that serves in place of the earth.
The term "grounded", then, refers to a system in which one of the elements is purposely
connected to "ground". The British use the terms "earth" and "earthing" instead of
"ground" and "grounding", which are probably more appropriate, but this publication will
use the American convention since the terms referencing ground appear throughout the
literature and US codes.

Electrical systems need not be grounded to function, and indeed not all electrical
systems are grounded. But the voltages referred to when talking about electrical
systems are usually voltages with respect to ground. Ground, therefore, represents the
reference point, or zero potential point, to which all other voltages refer. Indeed, as
computerized equipment communicates with other equipment, a zero reference voltage
is critical for proper operation.

The ground (earth), then, is a good choice as the zero reference point in most cases
since it surrounds us everywhere. When one is standing on the ground, one's body is
approximately at the voltage potential of the earth. If the building is metal framed, the
metal components of the building structure, or the water piping (if metallic), are
approximately at ground potential.

In most cases, the electrical service to most buildings installed over the past several
decades is "grounded". There are numerous exceptions. Whether or not a given electric
service to a building is "grounded" - that is, purposely connected via a low impedance
connection to the "ground" - is determined by the rules of the National Electrical Code©
4
(NEC) and the electric utility serving the facility.

Why are Grounded Systems Preffered?

Primary purpose of grounding electrical systems is to protect personnel and property if a

fault (short circuit) were to occur. In simple terms, if one of the three hot legs (phases) of
an ungrounded electric service becomes grounded, intentionally or accidentally, nothing
happens. No circuit breaker trips, no equipment stops running. Ungrounded electrical
systems were popular in industrial buildings of the first half of the 20th century precisely
for the reason that motor-driven loads, which were the most common at the time, would
not stop simply because of a short.

But a consequence of this type of system is that it is possible for the frame of a piece of
equipment to become energized at some voltage above ground, and present a shock
hazard for personnel who may be touching the equipment and a grounded component of
the structure simultaneously.

A second purpose of a grounding system is to provide a controlled, low impedance path

for lightning-induced currents to flow to the earth harmlessly.

The assumption in this document is of a grounded service installed in accordance with

the National Electrical Code© (NEC). There are some cases where this practice is not
desirable, and the NEC provides for those exceptions.

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 Sensitive Electronic Equipment

Earlier, the proliferation of personal computers in the office and home environment was
discussed. That description is really a metaphor for the proliferation of all the
microprocessor-controlled equipment found throughout the commercial and
manufacturing environments. Today, most factory environments are
computer-controlled.

Concurrent with the proliferation of these sensitive devices, the devices themselves
have been changing in ways that make them more sensitive to power irregularities.
Operating speeds have been increasing (in the radio frequency range), making the
circuits more susceptible to (and emitting) electromagnetic interference. Circuits have
been miniaturized, with less space between adjacent conductors on a circuit board,
increasing susceptibility to overvoltages, and increasing adjacent-channel interference.
The microprocessor chips themselves have become smaller and more densely packed.
This decreases heat dissipation, and makes them less robust. Operating voltages have
and continue to decrease to allow for this miniaturization. A digital "1" may be in the
vicinity of 3.5 - 5.0 volts or less, and a "0" in the range of 0 - 1.5 volts. So smaller
overvoltages from transient conditions may result in operating errors.

It is easy to see where it becomes important to keep transient overvoltages and high
frequency harmonics away from the microcircuits.

As this continuing miniaturization was taking place, a new type of power supply was
developed that offered dramatic weight and component savings, a necessary step to
development of smaller, lighter and less costly computers. That was the "switched
mode" power supply, to be discussed in more detail shortly.

Among the types of equipment that both can cause power quality problems, and are
susceptible to them, are:

Uninterruptible Power Supplies

Variable Frequency Drives
Battery Chargers
Large Motors During Startup
Electronic Dimming Systems
Lighting Ballasts (esp. Electronic)
Arc Welders, and Other Arc Devices
Medical Equipment, e.g. MRIs and X-Ray Machines

This list includes equipment that breaks a smooth sine-wave into stepped increments,
for control of the downstream device, by varying the voltage or frequency of the output.

Arc operated devices, including general purpose "universal" motors with brushes, arc
welders, and even arc-discharge lighting (fluorescent or HID) can be a strong source of
electromagnetic interference. (The arc itself is rich in energy of all frequencies.) This
interference can be picked up by improperly shielded or improperly grounded wiring, and
then conducted into sensitive devices.

Fourier analysis (if you remember your calculus) tells us that a wave of any shape can
be created by a defined combination of sine waves of varying frequency and amplitude.
Very simply put, the math tells us that square waves and quasi-square waves, which are
the output of switched mode power supplies and variable frequency drives, contain
elements of sine waves. But rather than just the fundamental 60 Hz sine waves, these
square waves also contain many higher frequency components, which are harmonics
(multiples) of the 60 Hz fundamental, as well as spiked components that are transient
overvoltages. These harmonics can result in heating of circuits and neutrals and
possible mis-operation of the digital logic. In addition, the leading edge of a square wave
or spike behaves like a high frequency (radio frequency) sine wave, and can be
mistaken for such.

The Switched Mode Power Supply

Historically, devices requiring DC (direct current) to operate (as all electronic circuits do)
had hefty and bulky power supplies that typically had a stepdown transformer supplying
a low voltage to a half-wave (simple diode) or full-wave (bridge) rectifier. The power
supply was heavy, bulky, and fairly inefficient.

Recently (in the last ten years or so), partly because of the need for lighter weight and
higher efficiency, the "switched-mode" power supply was developed. The
switched-mode power supply has a full-wave bridge rectifier (BR1 in diagram) directly
connected to the incoming 120 V AC line.

The switching circuit draws stored energy from capacitor C1 in short pulses (thus
quasi-square waves) before sending the now pulsed DC on to the transformer (TR in
diagram). The transformer is now operating on high-frequency, pulsed DC, instead of
the historically used 60 Hz AC. This change in operation enables the transformer to be
made much smaller and lighter than was possible in the 60Hz, 120 volt version. Thus,

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 overall power supply efficiency is greatly improved, from about 50% in standard power
supplies to about 80% for the switched-mode type.

Figure 1. 5
Block Diagram of Switched Mode Power Supply

Equipment can now be made smaller and lighter. Power consumption decreases, and
batteries for portable models can last much longer. But not without a downside. Because
of the pulsed nature of the output, it contains a fairly high level of harmonics, which can
flow back out onto the power distribution system, adversely affecting other equipment
and even the wiring itself.

The Effects Of Non-Linearity On 3-Phase Systems

The net result of harmonic and transient generation is possible mis-operation of
sensitive electronic equipment, and overheating of phase and particularly neutral
conductors. How does this happen?

In a balanced 3-phase circuit (equal linear load on each phase), operating with a smooth
60 Hz sine wave voltage on each phase, the neutral carries the vector sum of the three
phase currents, which is zero. But if one or more of the phase conductors is also
carrying significant currents at harmonic frequencies (multiples of the 60 Hz
fundamental), they may not cancel by vector addition, but may add in the neutral.
Standard test instruments cannot even measure them.

If the harmonic currents are sinusoidal, we find mathematically that the even multiples
cancel. But the odd multiples, because they are in phase, are additive, and appear in the
neutral, where they can cause overheating. The current in the neutral can actually be
higher than that in any one of the phase conductors. (Fires in fact have been reported
that resulted from harmonics.) If the fundamental or harmonics are non-sinusoidal, such
as square waves that may be caused by a pulsed power supply, mathematical analysis
becomes very difficult.

The phase wires themselves may now be carrying a sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal 60Hz
fundamental, plus non-sinusoidal, high frequency, pulsed currents, which may result in
overheating of the phase conductors. As predicted by Ohm's Law, these distorted
currents will cause distorted voltage wave forms in the building wiring system, which
can, in turn, cause equipment failure in other equipment. So we have a situation where
some equipment is creating problems that can affect other equipment in the building.

Techniques That Help

There are a variety of techniques that can help prevent or alleviate the effects of poor
power quality. Most simply involve better electrical designs and installation of some
additional wiring. These techniques are inexpensive to install, especially when a building
is undergoing construction, and they may also be cost effective during retrofits.

The most serious consequence of poor power quality, frequently, is not the physical
hardware that may be damaged, but the lost data, reduced productivity and costly
downtime. Like most ailments, they are much easier and cheaper to prevent than to
diagnose and cure.

Most of the following techniques are part of the current IEEE recommended practice,
6
and are contained in IEEE Standard 1100-1992 and/or Standard 142-1991 .
Unfortunately, they are not part of any required code, although some of them should be,
since safety may be affected in some cases.

Harmonics
Double-Size Neutrals, or Separate Neutrals per Phase
The sources of harmonics on building wiring have already been discussed.
Harmonics are much more than an inconvenience or source of equipment
malfunction. They can be a serious safety concern. Fortunately, they can be
easily handled by using double-size neutrals, as recommended by the former
Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), now
the Information Technology Industry Council. Alternatively, separate neutrals can
be used for each phase conductor.
At least one cable manufacturer makes a Type AC or MC cable with oversized or
extra neutral conductors built-in. The additional cost of oversizing the neutral is
minimal. And the safety provided will be functional even if there are changes in
the equipment that affect the frequencies involved.

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 Three configurations of type MC cable. Top: three phase conductors with a
separate neutral per phase. Middle: three phase conductors (12 gage) with a
double size neutral (the 8 gage white wire). Bottom: three phase conductors, a
double size neutral, and an isolated grounding conductor (green with yellow
stripe). Note that all three versions include a green equipment grounding
conductor. 8

Harmonic Filters
Filters are sometimes most cost effective in an existing structure where rewiring
is difficult or costly. The filters are used to block or trap the offending currents,
lessening the harmonic loads on the wiring. But the filter design is dependent on
the equipment on which it is installed, and may be ineffective if the particular
piece of equipment is changed. Filtering characteristics need to be carefully
designed for a given installation, and seeking professional design advice is
recommended. Filters are also fairly expensive on a per-kVA basis.

Shielded Isolation Transformers

Shielded isolation transformers are filtering devices that lessen feed-through of
harmonic frequencies from the source or the load. They are a plausible retrofit
technique where power problems have already been encountered, but are also
quite expensive per-kVA.

K-Rated Transformers
K-rated transformers have beefed-up conductors and sometimes cooling to
safely handle harmonic loads. Alternatively, standard transformers are
sometimes de-rated to allow for the extra heating due to harmonics. Depending
on the conditions encountered, a load limit of as little as 50% of the nameplate
rating is observed. This may be adequate to handle harmonics, but lowers
effective transformer efficiency. A careful comparison of the relative costs of
K-rated vs. de-rated standard transformers should be made.

Harmonic-Rated Circuit Breakers and Panels

Overheating due to harmonics is the danger here, and beefed-up components
used in these elements offer protection. Neutral buses should be rated for
double the phase current.

General Wiring

Separation of Sensitive Electronic Loads From Other Equipment

A dedicated "computer" circuit in each office is a good idea, at least back to the
branch circuit panel. A better idea, and required in some cases, is to power
sensitive equipment from separate branch circuits emanating from separate
panel boards, fed from separate feeders back to the main service entrance.

The neutrals and grounding conductors need to be kept separate also. A

dedicated circuit means separate phase wires, a separate neutral, with a
separate grounding conductor, run in its own separate metal conduit, back to the
source. See the section on conduit (below) for further discussion.

Avoid having sensitive equipment on the same circuits, or even panelboards, as

motor loads. Such equipment as laser printers, copying machines and fax
machines should be kept separate from computers.

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 An under-desk mounted outlet with a separate, clearly labeled, orange-colored
"computer" outlet, as well as the usual brown-colored "utility" outlet. This device
is fed by two separate circuits (from separate panels), and has transient voltage
surge suppression built-in. 10

Limited Number of Outlets per Circuit

Three to six outlets per circuit is recommended instead of the thirteen allowed by
Code on a 20 amp circuit. This will minimize the number and variety of sensitive
equipment sharing circuitry, tend to minimize voltage drop (discussed later),
minimize the chance for interaction, and leave some room for later growth or
equipment changes.

Metal Conduit
Metal conduit, properly grounded, provides shielding of the conductors from RF
energy. However, do not omit the grounding conductor (green insulated copper
wire), irrespective of the conduit material. It is needed for safety, as well as
assurance of a continuous, low impedance path to ground. The grounding
conductor is run inside the metal conduit, not outside.

All connections should be made properly and maintained to avoid possible

rectification of RF at poor joints. Corrosion and joint loosening need to be
addressed on a regular maintenance schedule to ensure low impedance
electrical continuity at all conduit joints.

According to the IEEE Standard 142 (Green Book), rigid steel conduit offers
better performance as a grounding conductor than aluminum, if a separate
copper grounding conductor is not used. But the best advice is to always use a
separate, full-size copper grounding conductor, irrespective of the conduit
material, due to the concern for corrosion and loosening.

Voltage Drop
Although the NEC allows up to a 3% voltage drop in a branch circuit,
recommended practice is to design for no more than a 1% voltage drop at full
load on branch circuits feeding sensitive equipment. Feeder voltage drop should
not exceed 2%.

That means conductor gages should often be larger than required as code
minimums. But a side benefit of larger conductor gage is that larger conductors
frequently save enough energy, due to their lower resistance, to compensate for
higher initial cost, with a short payback. Copper Development Association Inc.
has free information on upsizing conductors to save energy, available on
request.

Another factor to be considered in computing voltage drop is the crest factor

(ratio of peak to average value of the wave shape.) In a sine wave, the crest
factor is 1.414 ( ), and most tables, formulae and codes are based on this
common traditional waveform. But a non-sinusoidal waveform, containing
harmonics and irregular shapes, may have a crest factor of 3, 4, or higher.

Thus, the voltage drop at the current peaks may be several times higher than
usually expected from the sinusoidal case. The question arises as to the value of
current to employ when computing the voltage drop, as well as the value of
circuit impedance at the higher harmonic frequencies. One engineer has
suggested using three or four times the nameplate loads of the connected
equipment to account for this increased crest factor and to compensate for the
skin-effect and higher inductive reactance of the higher frequency components of
current that may be present. This degree of conservatism may not be required in
most cases, but prudence would suggest that phase conductors not be loaded to
their published ampacity limits.

The combination of upsizing conductors beyond the gage needed for the load,
combined with a 1% design voltage drop limit, should preclude excess voltage
drop in the branch circuit in most cases. Again, it is a case of the extra materials
being an inexpensive part of the overall installation cost during construction.

Conductor Material
The chances of problematic connections which could cause voltage fluctuations
in mild cases, and catastrophic failure in extreme cases, are decreased with the

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 use of copper conductors. Copper is the standard conductor metal against which
all other conductor materials are measured, And for good reason. It has lower
electrical resistance for given gage size. That means smaller gages and conduit
sizes for a given load requirement. Copper oxide is a relatively good conductor,
whereas aluminum oxide is an insulator. Special installation precautions are not
needed, and maintenance requirements are reduced when using copper. Special
corrosion inhibitors are not needed. Because of its superior connectability, there
is less risk of a power quality-related failure.

Grounding Considerations

Metallic Enclosures
All metal objects that enclose electrical conductors, or are likely to become
energized in the event of a fault or electrostatic discharge, should be effectively
grounded to provide personnel safety, as well as equipment performance. It is
best to use solidly grounded AC supply systems.

All metal enclosures, raceways, equipment grounding conductors and earth

grounding electrodes should be solidly joined together into one continuous
electrically connected system. All structural building steel should be bonded into
a single electrically conductive mass, and connected to the required electric
service ground at the service entrance, as well as the equipment grounding
conductor system and the metallic cold water system. Ground in accordance with
Article 250 of the NEC.

Isolated Grounds (IG)

Isolated grounding is a loosely defined technique that attempts to reduce the
chances of "noise" entering the sensitive equipment through the equipment
grounding conductor. The exact methods used in IG wiring vary somewhat from
case to case, and there is no defined standard method.

In a typical branch circuit, the grounding conductor of the equipment is

connected to the metallic outlet box through the connection of the grounding
conductor screw to the mounting yoke (mounting strap), as well as to the green
grounding conductor for that circuit. It is then further connected to the metallic
panelboard enclosure where the branch circuit originated. There, it can pick up
noise from adjacent circuits sharing the panelboard.

In the case of an IG receptacle, usually orange colored and identified with an

orange triangle symbol on its face, the grounding pin is not electrically connected
to the device yoke, and so is not connected to the metallic outlet box. It is,
therefore, "isolated" from the green wire ground. A separate conductor, green
with a yellow stripe, is run from the insulated grounding pin of the outlet to the
panelboard with the rest of the circuit conductors, but usually is not connected to
the metallic enclosure (Figure 4). In some cases, the isolation may terminate
here. Instead it is insulated all the way through to the ground bus of the service
equipment or to the ground connection of a separately derived system, i.e., an
isolation transformer.

In the opinion of many designers, the IG wiring method sometimes helps reduce
power quality problems, and sometimes it makes them worse! Thus, one may
consider installing the IG conductor, to be available if needed, but experiment
with reverting to a solidly grounded method if proven superior.

Figure 4: A "sensitive load" panelboard. Note the isolated grounding conductors

(green with yellow stripe) mounted on an insulating board near lower right, while
standard "solid" grounding conductors (green only) are connected to a bus
mounted directly to the metal cabinet, near lower left. This panel also features a
200%-rated neutral bus, and doubled-sized feeder neutral conductor. All wiring is
copper for trouble-free connectability.11

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 Ground Rings
A buried exterior ground ring is a technique to help achieve a low
impedance from the building's grounding system to the earth itself, and a
convenient means to connect various grounds leading from the building.
One recommended approach is to bury a bare copper conductor
(minimum gage is permitted to be as small as #2 AWG, but sizes of 4/0
and 250 kcmil are more often specified, and 500 kcmil sometimes used),
at a depth below the frost line (36"-42" in most of the US). Larger gages
increase the contact surface area, helping lower resistance. The ring is
set in a trench a few feet offset from the building's footprint, and
completely surrounds the structure. Ground-enhancing backfill materials
(bentonite, a natural clay material, or other proprietary materials) may be
used to enhance earth conductivity.

To this buried ring is connected the building steel, the lightning protection
down-conductors, the grounding electrode system, any metal piping
systems crossing its path, and any other grounding electrodes present.

Sometimes the ground ring is further supplemented by vertical ground

rods. In the design used at a large research university, for example, triple
ground rods are placed at each corner of the building, sometimes
supplemented by triple ground rods at mid-points, bonded to bare 500
kcmil copper conductor, at 36-40" depth, encircling each new building.
(As long as the site is open, trenches dug, and personnel on premises, it
makes little sense to skimp on the ground conductor.) This university is
an example of a long-term owner/occupier, in whose case the use of
particular buildings may change over the decades. For what has been
estimated as an extra 1-2% of the cost of construction (that includes
enhanced neutrals, extra circuits, superior grounding and many of the
other suggestions here), they are assured that the electrical system will
serve their needs into the future, without the need for excavation or other
costly retrofits that can be prohibitively expensive or impossible in their
urban campus setting.

Grounding Resistance
The grounding resistance should be checked upon installation, using a
ground resistance checker (such as a Megger® ), and checked again
periodically, depending on experience encountered, annually or
semiannually. Significant changes in readings require further
investigation as to cause and needed corrective action.

Even though the National Electrical Code alludes to a "desired" ground

resistance of 25 ohms or less, that standard is based on the level of
ground resistance deemed adequate to cause the overcurrent device
(circuit breaker) to trip under a fault condition. Proper operation of
sensitive electronic equipment is not a consideration of the Code. Indeed,
if the 25 ohm level is not achieved at first, the Code allows the installer to
place a second ground rod, do no further checking, and stop there. The
resultant ground resistance may be 100 ohms, 200 ohms, or whatever.

Many telephone and telecommunications companies specify a ground

resistance of 5 ohms or less. There is no one figure that will guarantee
trouble free operation of all equipment but, in general, the lower the
figure the better, with 10 ohms or less being a reasonable target for most
soil conditions. During the construction phase, while the site is excavated
and personnel are on the scene, it is prudent and economical to install
the best grounding electrode system possible for the site.

Depth of Grounding
Where there is insufficient real estate to work with, or under conditions of
unusually high ground resistivity, deep grounds may be required. Long
copper pipe-type ground rods, sometimes tens or hundreds of feet long,
in bored holes, are not unheard of in rare cases. In mountaintop
locations, for example, in order to achieve the target ground resistance
value, it may be more economical to bore a deep ground than to spread
out a shallow ground system over rocky terrain or steep slopes.

Generally speaking, deeper ground rods are more effective than shallow
rods, so a twenty foot rod is preferred to a ten foot rod, etc. As Figure 5
shows, resistance falls quickly as rod length increases, due to more
stable temperatures and increased moisture at lower depths.

Electrode spacing is also important. The general rule of thumb is that

multiple rods should be spaced apart at least twice the length of one rod.
That is, two ten-foot rods should be placed no closer than twenty feet
apart.

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 Figure 5. An approximation showing grounding resistance varying
12
non-linerly with rod depth.

Lightning

Lightning Protection Systems

In simple terms, if part of the "path of least resistance" to ground the lightning
sees is through your wiring or equipment, that is where it will flow. Lightning
produces very high currents, for a short time interval, but enough to cause fires
or to destroy microcircuits even miles away. The idea of air terminals, or lightning
rods as commonly known, goes back to Benjamin Franklin. The purpose is to
provide a convenient, controlled point for lightning to strike, and then be safely
conducted to ground. To provide the least resistive path, heavy-gage copper
wire should be employed in the leaders and down conductors.

Grounding of Lightning Systems

The down conductors tie directly to the ring ground described above, or other
grounding electrode system, along with all building steel and electric service
grounds. Use heavy-gage copper conductors to minimize impedance.

Detailed design considerations covering lightning systems are found in the

National Fire Protection Association's Code #780, Code For Protection Against
Lightning.

Conclusions
By following the recommendations above, the chances of power-quality problems are
minimized. During construction or major renovation, when structures are exposed and
workmen are on-site, the cost of extra materials or larger conductors is minimal. The
potential savings in lost production and downtime make these precautions a good
investment.

In cases where power quality problems are encountered in an existing facility, a careful
study will be necessary to determine the best course of action. Solutions may be as
simple as moving some loads between branch circuits, some minor rewiring, or
additional branch circuits. In some cases installation of shielded isolation transformers or
harmonic filters may be the best course of action. In difficult cases, professional
engineering assistance is recommended.

Ring grounds, combined with vertical rods, are recommended for new construction.
They are usually not practical for retrofits, especially in urban areas or where there is
limited space. In those retrofit cases the best solution may be a lengthy vertical ground
rod or a chemically enhanced ground rod (or rods). Make sure any chemicals or backfill
materials placed in the earth are environmentally acceptable and approved by such
organizations as the National Sanitation Foundation and the relevant state
environmental agency.

In diagnostic testing, be sure to use test instruments capable of accurately measuring

harmonic frequencies (usually called "True RMS Meters").

Additional information on power quality, including a bibliography of information sources

and a video on harmonics, is available from the Copper Development Association Inc.
(1-800-CDA-DATA, or www.copper.org).

Power quality problems frequently can be avoided entirely by careful design of building
systems. In existing buildings, they are sometimes alleviated or eliminated through
simple, often inexpensive, changes.
1. Bill Howe, "Corporate Energy Managers Express Their Views in
Second Annual E-Source Survey", E-Source Strategic Memo,
SM-97-5, July 1997

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 2. Dr. Edwin Brush, private communication, BBF and Associates,
September 1995
3. "Wiring and Grounding for Power Quality", Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA
4. © National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park,
Quincy, MA 02269 (1-800-344-3555)
5. From "EC&M Practical Guide to Quality Power for Sensitive
Electronic Equipment," Intertec Electrical Group, Overland Park
OK (1-800-543-77771)
6. Power and Grounding of Sensitive Electronic Equipment,
Standard 1100-1992 (Emerald Book)©, Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers, Piscataway, NJ 1992 (1-800-678-IEEE)
7. Grounding of Industrial and Commerical Power Systems,
Standard 142-1991 (Green Book)©, Ibid.
8. Courtesy, AFC Cable Systems, New Bedford, Mass.

9. Courtesy Sacramento Municipal Utility District

10. Courtesy Sacramento Municipal Utility District

11. Courtesy Sacramento Municipal Utility District

12. Intertec Electric Group, op. cit.

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