Heat, temperature and internal energy

Internal Energy
The internal energy of a substance is due to the vibrations/movement energy of the particles (kinetic) and the
energy due to the bonds holding them together (potential).
Solids: In a solid, the particles are arranged in a regular fixed structure, they cannot move from their position in
the structure but can vibrate. The internal energy of a solid is due to the kinetic energy of the vibrating particles
and the potential energy from the bonds between them.
Liquids: In a liquid the particles vibrate and are free to move around but are still in contact with each other.
The forces between them are less than when in solid form. The internal energy of a liquid is due to the kinetic
and potential energies of the particles but since they are free to slide past each other the potential energy is
less than that of it in solid form.
Gases: In a gas, particles are free to move in all directions with high speeds. There are almost no forces of
attraction between them. The internal energy of a gas is almost entirely due to the kinetic energy of the
particles.

Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energies of the particles in
the substance. As we can see from the graph something with a
high temperature means the particles are vibrating/moving with
higher average speeds that a substance at a lower temperature.
It is possible for two objects/substances to be at the same
temperature but have different internal energies. We will go into
this further in the next lesson: The Specifics.
Heat
Heat is the flow of thermal energy and it flows from a high temperature to a low temperature.
If two objects are at the same temperature, we say that they are in thermal equilibrium and no heat flows.
If object A is in thermal equilibrium with object B and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C then A
and C must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Get into a hot or cold bath and energy is transferred:
In a cold bath thermal energy is transferred from your body to the water.
In a hot bath thermal energy is transferred from the water to your body.
As the energy is transferred, you and the water become the same temperature, there is no longer a flow of
energy  so no more heat. You both still have a temperature due to the vibrations of your particles but there is
no longer a temperature difference so there is no longer a flow of energy.

Temperature Scale
The Celsius scale was established by giving the temperature at which water becomes ice a value of 0 and the
temperature at which it boils a value of 100. Using these
fixed points a scale was created.
Absolute Zero and Kelvins
In 1848 William Thomson came up with the Kelvin scale for
temperature. He measured the pressure caused by gases
at known temperatures (in °C) and plotted the results. He
found a graph like this one.
By extrapolating his results he found the temperature at
which a gas would exert zero pressure. Since pressure is
caused by the collisions of the gas particles with the container, zero pressure means the particles are not
moving and have a minimum internal energy. At this point the particle stops moving completely and we call this
temperature absolute zero, it is not possible to get any colder. This temperature is -273°C.
1 Kelvin is the same size as 1 degree Celsius, but the Kelvin scale starts at absolute zero.
°C = K – 273 K = °C + 273
 Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent heat
Specific Heat Capacity
We know that when we heat a substance the temperature will increase. The equation that links heat (energy)
and temperature is:
∆Q = mc∆T
Where ∆Q is the energy required (J), m is the mass (kg), ∆T is the temperature change
c is the specific heat capacity which is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1
degree. It can be thought of as the heat energy 1 kg of the substance can hold before the temperature will
increase by 1 degree.
Specific Heat Capacity is measured in Joules per kilogram per Kelvin, J/kg K or J kg-1 K-1
Heating water
We can think of the energy being transferred to different volumes of water. Compare a 250 ml beaker and a 100
ml beaker, both full of water. The energy required to raise the the temperature of 250ml of water (0.25kg) by 1
degree would be 2.5 times greater than the energy required to raise 100ml (0.1kg) of water by 1 degree.

Changes of State
When a substance changes state there is no change in temperature.

When a solid is heated energy is transferred to the

particles making them vibrate more which means
the temperature increases. The potential energy of
the solid remains constant but the kinetic energy
increases.
At melting point the particles do not vibrate any
faster, meaning the kinetic energy and temperature
are constant. The bonds that keep the particles in a
rigid shape are broken and the potential energy
increases.
In liquid form the particles are still in contact with
each other but can slide past each other. As more
energy is transferred the particles vibrate more. The
kinetic energy increases but the potential energy is
constant.
At boiling point the particles do not vibrate any faster, meaning the kinetic energy and temperature are
constant. The bonds holding the particles together are all broken, this takes much more energy than when
melting since all the bonds need to be broken.
When a gas is heated the particles move faster, meaning the kinetic energy and temperature increases. The
potential energy stays constant.

Specific Latent Heat

Different substances require different amounts of energy to change them from solid to liquid and from liquid to
gas. The energy required is given by the equation:
Q=ML
L represents the specific latent heat which is the energy required to change 1 kg of a substance from solid to
liquid or liquid to gas without a change in temperature.
Specific Latent Heat is measured in Joules per kilogram, J/kg or J kg-1
The specific latent heat of fusion is the energy required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid
The specific latent heat of vaporisation is the energy required to change 1 kg of liquid into gas.
As we have just discussed, changing from a liquid to a gas takes more energy than changing a solid into a gas, so
the specific latent heat of vaporisation is higher than the specific latent heat of fusion.
 Ideal Gases
Combining the gas laws
The three gas laws can be combined to give us the relationship: pV  T
pV
We can rearrange this to give the expression:  constant
T
We can use this to derive a very useful equation to compare the pressure, volume and temperature of a gas
p1V1 p 2V2
that is changed from one state (p1, V1, T1) to another (p2, V2, T2). 
T1 T2
Temperatures must be in Kelvin, K
Avogadro and the Mole
One mole of a material has a mass of M grams, where M is the molecular mass in atomic mass units, u. Oxygen
has a molecular mass of 16, so 1 mole of Oxygen atoms has a mass of 16g, 2 moles has a mass of 32g and so on.
An Oxygen molecule is made of two atoms so it has a molecular mass of 32g. This means 16g would be half a
mole of Oxygen molecules.

m
n where n is the number of moles, m is the mass and M is the molecular mass.
M

Avogadro suggested that one mole of any substance contains the same number of particles, he found this to be
6.02 x 1023. This gives us a second way of calculating the number of moles

N
n where N is the number of particles and NA is the Avogadro constant.
NA
NA is the Avogadro Constant, NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1
Ideal Gases
pV
We know from the three gas laws that  constant
T
Ideal gases all behave in the same way so we can assign a letter to the constant. The equation becomes:
pV
R
T
If the volume and temperature of a gas are kept constant then the pressure depends on R and the number of
particles in the container. We must take account of this by bringing the number of moles, n, into the equation:
pV
 nR  pV  nRT
T
R is the Molar Gas Constant, R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1
This is called the equation of state for an ideal gas. The concept of ideal gases is used to approximate the
behaviour of real gases. Real gases can become liquids at low temperatures and high pressures.

Using the Avogadro’s equation for n we can derive a new equation for an ideal gas:

N R
pV  nRT  pV  RT  pV  N T
NA NA
Boltzmann Constant
Boltzmann noticed that R and NA in the above equation are constants, so dividing one by the other will always
give the same answer. The Boltzmann constant is represented by k and is given as

R
k
NA
k is the Boltzmann Constant, k = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1

R
pV  nRT can become pV  N T which can also be written as: pV  NkT
NA
 Gas Laws
Gas Properties
Volume, V: This is the space occupied by the particles that make up the gas.
Volume is measured in metres cubed, m3
Temperature, T: This is a measure of the internal energy of the gas and this is equal to the average kinetic
energy of its particles.
Temperature is measured in Kelvin, K
Pressure, p: When a gas particle collides with the walls of its container it causes a pressure. Pressure is given by
the equation pressure = Force/Area or ‘force per unit area’.
Pressure is measured in pascals, Pa
1 pascal is equal to a pressure of 1 newton per square metre.

Understanding the Gas Laws

We are about to look at the three different laws that all gases obey. To help us understand
them let us apply each one to a simple model. Image one ball in a box; the pressure is a
measure of how many collisions between the ball and the box happen in a certain time, the
volume is the area of the box and the temperature is the average speed of the ball. To
simply thing further let us assume it is only moving back and forth in the x direction.

Boyle’s Law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume when
kept at a constant temperature.
1
p for constant T
V
Explaining pressure and volume…
If temperature is constant, it means that the ball is travelling at a fixed, constant
speed. If we increase the size of the box it makes fewer collisions in the same
time, because it has to travel further before it collides with the side. If we make
the box smaller the ball will collide with the box more often since it has less
distance to travel.

Charles’ Law
All gases expand at the same rate when heated. The volume of a fixed mass of
gas is proportional to its temperature when kept at a constant pressure.

V  T for constant p
Explaining volume and temperature…
If pressure is constant, it means that the same number of collisions with the box
are taking place. So, if the box was made bigger the ball would have to move
faster to make sure there were the same amount of collisions per unit time.
Increasing the temperature increases the speed of the ball.

The Pressure Law

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is proportional to its temperature when kept
at a constant volume.

p  T for constant V
Explaining pressure and temperature…
If the volume in constant it means the box has a fixed size. If we increase the
speed at which the ball is moving it will hit the sides of the box more often, which
increases the pressure. If we slow the ball down it will hit the sides less often,
decreasing pressure.
 Molecular Kinetic Theory
Assumptions
1. There are a very large number of molecules (N)
2. Molecules have negligible volume compared to the container
3. The molecules show random motion (ranges of speeds and directions)
4. Newton’s Laws of Motion can be applied to the molecules
5. Collisions are elastic and happen quickly compared to the time between collisions
6. There are no intermolecular forces acting other than when they collide
Deriving equations for pressure
The molecules move in all directions. Let us start with one molecule of mass m travelling with velocity vx. It
collides with the walls of the container, each wall has a length of L.
Calculate the change in momentum: before it moves with velocity vx and after the collision it move with –vx .
mv  (mv x )  (mv x )  mv  2mv x Equation 1
The time can be given by using distance/speed: the speed is vx and the distance is twice the length of the box
2L
(the distance to collide and then collide again with the same wall) t  Equation 2
vx
2mvx v 
mv F F  2mvx . x 
Force can be calculated by: F  Substitute in Equation 1 and 2   2L    2L 
t  
2  vx 
 F mv x Equation 3, gives the force of one molecule acting on the side of the container.
L
We can now calculate the pressure this one molecule causes in the x direction:
2
mv x 2 2
F L mv x mv x
p Substituting Equation 3  p  p  p Equation 4
A L2 L3 V
(If we assume that the box is a cube, we can replace L3 with V, both units are m3)
All the molecules of the gas have difference speeds in the x direction. We can find the pressure in the x
direction due to them all by first using the mean value of vx and then multiplying it by N, the total number of
2 2 2
mv x mv x Nmv x
molecules: p   p p Equation 5
V V V
Equation 5 gives us the pressure in the x direction.
2 2 2 But since the average  c 2  3v x 2
The mean speed in all directions is given by:  c 2  vx  vx  vx
velocities in all 2
c 2
We can substitute this into the Equation 5 for pressure above: directions are equal:  vx
3
2 2
Nmv x c 1
 pV 
2
p  pV  Nmv x  pV  Nm Nmc 2 Equation 6
V 3 3

Equation for Kinetic Energy of a Gas

From the equation we have just derived we can find an equation for the mean kinetic energy of a gas:
1 1
Since pV  Nmc 2 and pV  nRT combine these to get Nmc 2  nRT Equation 7
3 3
Kinetic energy is given by E K  2 mv so we need to make the above equation look the same.
1 2

1 1 nRT 3nRT 1 2 3nRT

Nmc 2  nRT  mc 2   mc 2   mc 
3 3 N N 2 2N
N N 1 n 1 2 3RT
n  NA    mc 
NA n NA N 2 2N A
R 1 2 3
Substitute for k k  mc  kT Equation 8
NA 2 2
 Electricity basics
Current, I
Electrical current is the rate of flow of charge in a circuit. Electrons are charged particles that move around the
circuit. So we can think of the electrical current as the flow of electrons, not so much the speed but the number
of electrons moving in the circuit. If we imagine that electrons are students in a corridor, and a wire of a circuit
is the corridor itself, the current is how many students are passing by in a set time.
Current is measured in Amperes (or Amps), A
Charge, Q
The amount of electrical charge is a fundamental unit, similar to mass and length and time. From the data sheet
we can see that the charge on one electron is actually -1.60 x 10 -19 C. This means that it takes 6.25 x 1018
electrons to transfer 1C of charge.
Charge is measured in Coulombs, C
Voltage/Potential Difference, V
Voltage, or potential difference, is the work done per unit charge.
1 unit of charge is 6.25 x 1018 electrons, so we can think of potential difference as the energy given to each of
the electrons, or the pushing force on the electrons. It is the p.d. that causes a current to flow and we can think
of it like water flowing in a pipe. If we make one end higher than the other end, water will flow down in, if we
increase the height (increase the p.d.) we get more flowing. If we think of current as students walking down a
corridor, the harder we push them down the corridor the faster they move and more pass by each second.
Voltage and p.d. are measured in Volts, V
Resistance, R
The resistance of a material tells us how easy or difficult it is to make a current flow through it. If we think of
current as young students walking down a corridor, it would be harder to make them flow if we added some
college rugby players into the corridor. Increasing resistance lowers the current.
Resistance is measured in Ohms, Ω
Current, charge and time
There are three equations that we need to be able to explain and substitute numbers into.

Q
I
t
Current is the rate of change of charge per second and backs up or idea of current as the rate at which electrons
(and charge) flow.

This can be rearranged into

Q  It
which means that the charge is equal to how much is flowing multiplied by how long it flows for (time in
seconds).

Potential difference, energy and charge

E
V
Q
This says that the voltage/p.d. is the energy per unit charge. The ‘push’ of the electrons is equal to the energy
given to each unit of charge.

Potential difference, current and resistance

V  IR
This says that increasing the p.d. increases the current for same resistance. Increasing the ‘push’ of the
electrons makes more flow.
It also shows us that for constant V, if R increases, I gets smaller. Pushing the same strength, if there is more
blocking force less current will flow.
 Circular Motion

Consider a car taking a circular path. It moves in a circle of radius r, shown in the
diagram.

Angular Displacement, θ
As the car travels from X to Y it has travelled a distance of s and has covered a
section of the complete circle it will make. It has covered and angle of θ which is
called the angular displacement.
arc s
 
radius r
Angular Displacement is measured in radians, rad
Radians
1 radian is the angle made when the arc of a circle is equal to the radius.
arc circumference 2r
For a complete circle          2
radius radius r
A complete circle is 360° so 360° = 2π rad
1° = 0.017 rad 57.3° = 1 rad

Angular Speed, ω
Angular speed is the rate of change of angular displacement, or the angle that is covered every second.


t
Angular Speed is measured in radians per second, rad/s or rad s -1

Frequency, f
Frequency is the number of complete circles that occur every second.
For one circle;   2 , if we substitute this into the equation above we get
2

t
This equation says that the angular speed (angle made per second) is equal to one
circle divided by the time taken to do it. Very similar to speed = distance/time
1
Since f  the above equation can be written as   2f
T
Frequency is measures in Hertz, Hz
Speed, v
The velocity of the car is constantly changing because the direction is constantly changing. The speed however,
is constant and can be calculated.
s
v If we rearrange the top equation we can get r  s , the speed then becomes
t
r
v Now if we rearrange the second equation we get t   , the equation becomes
t
rt
v Cancel the t’s and we finally arrive at our equation for the speed.
t
v  r
Speed is measured in metres per second, m/s or m s-1
 Centripetal Force and Acceleration
Moving in a Circle
For an object to continue to move in a circle a force is needed that acts on the object towards the centre of the
circle. This is called the centripetal force and is provided by a number of things:
For a satellite orbiting the Earth it is provided by gravitational attraction.
For a car driving around a roundabout it is provided by the friction between the wheels and the road.
For a ball on a string being swung in a circle it is provided by the tension in the string.
Centripetal force acts from the body to the centre of a circle
Since F=ma the object must accelerate in the same direction as the resultant force. The object is constantly
changing its direction towards the centre of the circle.
Centripetal acceleration has direction from the body to the centre of the circle

Centrifugal Force
Some people thought that an object moving in a circle would experience the centripetal force acting from the
object towards the centre of the circle and the centrifugal force acting from the object away from the centre of
the circle.
They thought this because if you sit on a roundabout as it spins it feels like you are being thrown off backwards.
If someone was watching from the side they would see you try and move in a straight line but be pulled in a
circle by the roundabout.
The centrifugal force does not exist in these situations.

Centripetal Acceleration
The centripetal acceleration of an object can be derived
if we look at the situation to the right. An object of
speed v makes an angular displacement of ∆θ in time ∆t.
v
a
t
If we look at the triangle to the far right, we can use
s v
 when θ is small. This becomes:  
r v
We can rearrange this to give: v  v
v
Acceleration is given by a  substitute the above
t
equation into this one
v 
a this is the same as a  v
t t

In lesson 3 (Circular Motion) we established that   , substitute this into the equation above
t
a  v
If we use v  r we can derive two more equations for acceleration
v2
a  v a  r 2 a
r
Centripetal Acceleration is measured in metres per second squared, m/s 2 or m s-2

Centripetal Force
We can derive three equations for the centripetal force by using F  ma and the three equations of
acceleration from above.
v2
F  mv F  mr 2 F m
r
Centripetal Force is measured in Newtons, N
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation and Gravitational Fields
Newton’s Law of Gravitation (Gravity)
Gravity is an attractive force that acts between all masses. It is the masses themselves that cause the force to
exist. The force that acts between two masses, m1 and m2, whose centres are separated by a distance of r is
given by:

m1m2
F
r2
This was tested experimentally in a lab using large lead spheres and was refined to become:
Gm1m2
F 
r2
G is the Gravitational Constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
When one of the masses is of planetary size, M, the force between it and a test mass, m, whose centres are
separated by a distance of r is given by:
GMm
F 
r2
The minus sign means that the force is attractive, the force is in the opposite direction to the distance from the
mass (displacement). This will become clearer when we look at the electric force.
Negative = Attractive
Positive = Repulsive
Force is measured in Newtons, N
Gravitational Fields
A gravitational field is the area around a mass where any other mass will experience a force. We can model a
field with field lines or lines of force.
Radial Fields
The field lines end at the centre of a mass
and tail back to infinity. We can see that
they become more spread out the further
from the mass we go.
Uniform Fields
The field lines are parallel in a uniform
field. At the surface of the Earth we can
assume the field lines are parallel, even
thou they are not.

Gravitational Field Strength, g

We can think of gravitational field strength as the concentration of the field lines at that point. We can see from
the diagrams above that the field strength is constant in a uniform field but drops quickly as we move further
out in a radial field.
The gravitational field strength at a point is a vector quantity and is defined as:
The force per unit mass acting on a small mass placed at that point in the field.
F
We can represent this with the equation: g
m
If we use our equation for the gravitational force at a distance r and substitute this in for F we get:
GMm GM
g which simplifies to: g 
r 2m r2
Gravitational Field Strength is measured in Newtons per kilogram, N kg-1
 Comparing Electric and Magnetic Fields
Comparing Fields

We have seen that the characteristics of gravitational and electric fields have some similarities and differences.

Gravitational Fields Electric Fields

Force is between Masses Charges
Constant of 1
G
proportionality 4 0
Gm1m2 1 Q1Q2
F  F
r2 4 0 r 2
Equation for force
Newton (N) Newtons (N)
Vector Vector
Like charges repel
Nature of force Attractive only
Different charges attract
Definition of field
Force per unit mass Force per unit charge
strength
GM Q
g E
Field strength in r2 4 0 r 2
radial field Newtons per kilogram (N/kg) Newtons per Coulomb (N/C)
Vector Vector
Definition of The work done in bringing a unit mass The work done in bringing a unit charge
potential from infinity to the point in the field from infinity to the point in the field
GM Q
V  V
Potential r 4 0 r
Joules per kilogram (J/kg) Joules per Coulomb (J/C)
Scalar Scalar
Potential at
0 0
infinity
Work done W  QV
W  mV
moving between
Joules (J) Joules (J)
points of different
Scalar Scalar
potential
Gradient of
potential against Field strength Field strength
distance graph