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UNIT 1: HISTORICAL SOURCES

The word History comes from a Greek word HISTORIA which means to *ask*, enquire or
search for the truth and report the findings.
Definition of History
History is a subject that deals with the study of people’s way of life in the past.
History is a social science which studies man’s past events to understand the present so as
to prepare our future.
History can also be defined as the study of man’s past events since his appearance to the
earth.
Citizenship: this is defined as the state of legally belonging to a given nation
History as the past period has been divided into two major parts which are:
Prehistory or stone age which is used to describe all events that took place before the
invention of writing system (3000BC) when man was using a stone as his main tool.
History is used to describe all events that took place from the invention of writing system (-
3000) up to now.
Branches of History
History is divided into three branches namely:
Political History: it studies people’s way of ruling, people’s leaders and the system of
administration
Social history: it deals with people’s beliefs, dressing, taboos, literature and religion. It
actually seeks to understand the cultural practices and ways of life of a people.
Economic history: it is the study of how people make their daily living. Or simply the
occupations of the people within a given society.

Some historical terms used while learning History

Generation-A period between 25-30 years in which one became adult and ready to marry and
create another generation.
Decade- it is a period of 10 years.
Century it is a period of 100 years.
Millennium is a period of 1000 years.

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Era –A period of time in history marked by a special event at its beginning. Example is Muslim
era which started in 622 when prophet Muhamad made a pilgrimage from Mecca to Medina or
Christian era which started with the birth of Jesus Christ.
Epoch: it is special period in History which begins another long period.
Date time at which a thing happens or was made.
Time line Gradual and oriented line on which dated events are placed chronologically.
Calendar:
Sources of Historical information
Source of history is any element which helps us to know about the human’s past. An
historian should collect data, analyze it and make conclusion the sources. These sources of
History are the following:
 Oral tradition
 Written sources
 Electronic sources (Audio-visual sources)
 Archaeology
 Linguistics
 Anthropology
 Genetics
Each of these sources of historical information has been discussed below.
a) Oraltradition
Oral tradition is defined as any information passed by word of mouth (verbally) from
one generation to another. This is done through socialisation especially between the
young and the old.
Oral traditions may be in form of songs, stories, legends, poems and proverbs of
people’s past.
b) Written sources
They include books, non published documents, letters, dailies, magazines, journals,
inscriptions on coins and newspapers.

c) Electronic sources (Audio-visual sources)

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These include the use of modern technology such as mobile phones, radios, television,
cinemas and the internet. Getting information through seeing and hearing is what we
call audio-visual. It is one of the ways through which historical information is collected.
It also deals with obtaining information by listening to or watching other devices. It is one of
the modern sources of information.
d) Archaeology
It refers to the study of dug up materials or material remains of people’s past. Ryamurari is
one of the archaelogical sites in our country. It is located in Bufunda Village, Bufunda Cell,
Mukama Sector, Nyagatare District in Eastern Province.
e) Linguistics
Linguistics deals with the study and analysis of languages, their sound, evolution structure
and formation. It also deals with the relationship between various languages. From these
studies, one can conclude that people of the same language may have been in contact. For
example, Bantu language has common words linked to ‘NTU’. That indicates that they may
share a common historical origin.
f) Anthropology
This is the study of the existing social institutions and relationships of people’s cultures,
traditions, norms, values and attitudes. It deals with the study of how societies were
established. It also deals with how they were socially, economically and politically organised.
All these act as a basis of transformation of society to the present status.
In Rwanda, the Institute of National Museum is a good source of information. It has
information on the history of the country and the region.
g) Genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, heredity and genetic variations in living organisms. Genetic
studies enables historians to categorise different races and ethnic groups. The study
of Genetic enables historians to understand human identity and origins of different
communities. Since this occurs over time, a historian can capture relevant periods in the
development of people. Through comparative studies of DNA, which is inherited from
parents, it is widely believed that modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, originated in
Africa.
3. Processes of collecting historical information

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Collecting historical information follows this process:

1) Data collection: is gathering of information from different sources.
The following are the Methods of data collection:
 Questionnaires  Tape-recording
 Interviews  Filming
 Focus groups  Photographing
 Surveys  Observation
2) Data analysis: is interpreting the data collected, it involves simplifying the data
collected for easier interpretation this may be done by putting in categories them,
tabular, pictorial (illustrated by pictures), chart or graph form.
3) Conclusion: is making conclusion on data collected
CHALLENGES IN COLLECTING HISTORICAL INFORMATION
Challenges appear depending on sources of information or the methods used in collecting
historical information
a) Based on sources of information:
 Some sources are inconvenient for all learners (for instance oral tradition cannot be
used by people with hearing impairment)
 Language barrier
 Written records cannot be used by illiterate people
 Some historical sources are very hard to interpret and are usually misinterpreted
(example to interpret pictures, gestures, etc)
 Some historical sources are expensive (like archaeology which require materials for
excavation and laboratory equipment)
 Some historical sources (like archaeology) require experts and skilled people who are
scarce in some areas
 It is also difficult to trace some historical information especially where fossils are
involved

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b) Based on method used

Method Challenges

i. Interview - Time consuming

- Can be hard to analyze and compare information
- Can be expensive
- Interviewer can bias interviewee’s responses
- Informer may exaggerate, forget or give wrong
information willingly or not.
- Lack of old people to explain more about the past
- Is not easy to the people with disabilities

ii. Documentation review - Often takes much time

- Information may be incomplete
- No flexible means to get data (data are restricted to
what already exists)
- Need to be quite clear about what the researcher is
looking for
- Lack of documents to be used (e.g.: it is difficult to
get a newspaper written in early years)
- There is no opportunity to ask for full explanation

iii. Observation - Can be difficult to interpret seen behaviors

- Can be difficult to categorize seen behaviors
- Can be expensive (to visit historical sites and
museum)
- Some historical sites had been damaged
- It is not accessible to the blind people

iv. Case studies - Usually quite time consuming to collect, organize

and describe gotten information

v. Questionnaires, survey - Questionnaires might not get careful feedback

- In surveys may need sampling experts
- Does not get full story

4. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY

a) History helps us to know our identity

b) History prepares us for the future, after we have known the present and the past
c) History sharpens our critical sense and judgment
d) History inspires us and instills in us a patriotic and nationalistic spirit

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e) History is a career subject; by studying history we can become teachers, curators,

lawyers, administrators, politicians, etc
f) It helps to think about the origin of great problems of this moment.
g) History provides an intellectual training that may help to interpret facts, i.e the
historical facts of evolution.
h) The study of history helps to know the characteristic of events of a civilization such
as: the social and political organization, the way of production and change, the
religious beliefs, the philosophical aspects, the systems of defense, the artistic
manifestations, the scientific and technical aspects.
i) History gives a moral and civic formation to the students in order to get them ready
to play their role in their society.
j) History helps the students to understand the evolution of the society,
k) History fixes in students the culture of solidarity.
l) History evokes in student the spirit of curiosity on experience of life.
m) It helps students to become good citizens
n) To let them respect the historical sites.
o) To sharpen their curiosity on various human experiences.
p) History makes the student understand the evolution of the society in time and space
(it shows us that conflicts that oppose some countries have their origin)
q) History instills in students the culture of solidarity, interdependence, tolerance and
good relationship among the people
r) It helps to promote international understanding among nations and people
s) History teaches tolerance: to respect other people ‘s opinions which leads to mutual
understanding and peaceful co-existence
t) It helps us to make a thorough analysis of the past events such as the 1994 genocide
against Tutsi; this will help us to prevent them from occurring again
u) History teaches us reconciliation: most often children are victims of situations which
they are not responsible for.
Briefly the study of history in Rwanda is important because it helps us to understand the
historical patterns and to appreciate them and then acquire some values such as modesty,

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humility, honesty, solidarity, tolerance, justice. It helps us to bear some values such as the spirit
of organization and patriotism.
UNIT 2: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL SOURCES
As we have seen, collecting Historical information requires to use different sources be it
written or unwritten; but each source has its own merits (advantages) and demerits
(disadvantages). We are going to discuss about each source here below.
1) ORAL SOURCES or TRADITIONS
Advantages of oral traditions
 It is cheap to collect: in most cases there is no cost involved while using oral source
as it is a kind of conversation.
 It is easy to get: this source is very easy to get because we are living with the informers
and it is not hard to approach them.
 It doesn’t exclude the illiterate: this source can be used by anyone regardless to the
level of education and someone who can’t read or write (illiterate) can use it.
 It is fast to spread: this is obvious as any information passed by mouth is easily spread
from one person to another.
 It compliments other sources of history: many sources of history get firsthand
information especially basing upon oral traditions.
 It integrates the study of history with other social studies: using oral source can
educate the historian in another way for example how to live with others and how to
manage different population.
 It is commonly used to study pre-history where writing was not there: in all societies,
before the invention or (introduction) of writing system, they were using oral source
only and as time went on with introduction of writing system they moved to
(transcription) of such traditions.
 It increases friendship in the society: another advantage is that using oral source
creates good friendship between historian and the informer especially when the
latter is good at narrating.
 It is easy to check the truth and reliability: since you are physically with the informer
it is easy to judge his/he credibility or truth before relying upon.

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DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITIONS

 The informer may be biased. For example: once telling about battle you simply talk
about the final success as you have won but not the details about your failures, defeats
during the battles, some dark periods etc.
 They consume time: as researcher may have to interview several people to compare
for accuracy of data, informer who tells long and irrelevant stories
 It is easy to tell lies:
 It is easy to forget
 It can comprise exaggeration
 It is difficult to give the collect dates and chronology of events
 Information is easily changed
 Some information may be deliberately concealed
 It excludes the people with hearing problems
 The accuracy of the information depends on the memory of informant
2) WRITTEN SOURCE
ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN SOURCE OF HISTORY
i. Easy To Use: It is easier to use written sources. This is because books or documents
can often be carried from one place to another where the reader or the writer wants
to use it. This cannot be done in the non-documentary sources.
ii. They can be stored for long time
iii. Accurate and Reliable Facts: Written records of contemporary issues give first-
hand information which is naturally more accurate and reliable. This is because dates
and events are chronologically well recorded. For example minutes of meetings give
exact and accurate date, and the time the meeting was held.
iv. They allow people to study history of other parts of the world without travelling
v. iv. Promotion of Research: Written sources of promote research work. For instance,
when readers feel that there is a deficiency in a written account, they are encouraged
to dig further in order to contribute to greater and more accurate knowledge about
the issue.
vi. The information can be easily spread all over the world (through media, library,
internet etc).

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vii. Effective Means of Keeping Records : Keeping accurate records of events is very
difficult especially where written sources are lacking and people rely solely on oral
tradition. One can say therefore that written sources are more effective means or
method of keeping records of past events.
viii. Help Cross-Checking Information: Written sources help in cross-checking data or
information collected from oral and other sources of historical knowledge. This help
to reach reliable conclusions.
ix. Provision of Detailed Information: Documents provide more detailed information
than oral sources, e.g. dates, illustrative pictures, names of participants in events etc.
DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN SOURCES OF HISTORY
i. Easily Destroyed: Written sources can easily be destroyed by termites, rodents, fire, flood,
earthquakes, humidity, etc.
ii. Condition Biases and Distortions: Another major limitation of written sources of history
is that they may contain biases and distortions. The writer may intentionally write to suit his
opinions or leave out some aspects of the events which are not to his liking.
iii. False Information: Again, one of the strongest demerit of written source is, once certain
materials or information have been written down, people take them to be as fact even when
they are not crosschecked.
iv. Expensive
Written materials are expensive. The writer needs materials like paper, pen, book, diary, etc
to put down events. Also, before one gets written materials, they may have to make use of
the other sources like archeology, linguistics etc.
v. Difficult to get: Once again, written materials are hard to come by, especially in Africa
where the art of writing started late. Even in Africa where they are available, they are
fragmentary and far between. This means that the historian has to rely more on the non-
documentary sources, making the work more difficult.
vi. Getting Lost: Written materials can get lost, thus depriving the people the historical
information if they are the only sources of information available.
vii. Illiteracy: Documentary sources are written materials that have been put into writing
and to be able to read one needs to be literate (able to read and write). Some cannot neither
read nor write, hence rendering written sources of history deficient.

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viii. Consult Experts: Finally, to come out with authentic written materials, the services of
experts in the other disciplines like archeology, linguistics, etc. are needed in order to
interpret correctly historical events.
3) LINGUISTIC SOURCE
Advantages of linguistic source
 It helps to identify groups with similar language traits
 Information is easily obtained as language is a cultural phenomena
 This source makes it easy to trace peoples’ interactions and course of movement
 They show different ways of life of people in the past.
 We know the variations between different communities and their cultural aspects.
 Linguistics provides knowledge on the ancestral life of people.
 Linguistics show the effects of cultural aspects on people.
 It helps those using oral tradition to gather information from various sources
Disadvantages of linguistic source
 Some words may be omitted when translating a language
 It is time consuming
 Some vocabularies are not easy to understand especially due to course of languages
per generations (example: Ibyivugo, Ubwiru, Amahamba)
 Translation of languages distorts the meaning of words
 It may be limited by language barrier as it requires people who understand many
languages
 Languages are never static.
 Linguistic experts are very few
 Classification of languages is difficult and requires expertise
 Where loan (borrowed) words corrupt the parental language, inaccuracies may
occur
 It is expensive because it requires someone to travel to such society he wants to study
about
4) ARCHAEOLOGY SOURCE
Advantages of archaeology source
 It provides pre-history information

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 It gives accurate information

 It links history to laboratory based sciences
 It has a sense of reality as artifacts can be seen or touched
 It gives a sense of time through dating
 We can complement another sources of information through archaeology.eg written
 It links History with other subjects like Chemistry, Geography, etc.
Disadvantages of archaeological source
 It is time consuming
 It is expensive as it requires expensive equipment
 Some artifacts are fragile and may breakdown during excavation
 It is limited to the study of the ancient period
 It is difficult to locate archaeological sites
 It requires experts (archaeologists)
 Poorly interpreted remains can bring false information.
 It can’t tell anything about the past social organization.
 It cannot reveal the past people’s language.
 It cannot give out reasons for historical events such as wars.
5) ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOURCE
Advantages of anthropological source
 It enables historians to determine the cultural past of a community
 It helps us to understand how different societies migrated and settled different areas.
 Information is easily obtained
 It gives first hand information
 It helps us to find out different parts of different people.
 It is used to know the traditional beliefs of different societies.
 It helps to understand people’s traditional ways of life
 It compliments other sources
DISADVANTAGES OF ANTHROPOLOGY SOURCE
 It is expensive as the historical has to live among community for a long period of time
 It is time consuming to get information

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 Anthropological hypothesis may be taken as historical truth which may have

negative consequences (Hamite and Bantu migration)
 People may behave differently in the presence of a researcher
 It is difficult to understand how and why people think the way they do
 It is difficult to know all the information because it involves moving from one place to
another.
 There is sometimes the problem of hostile tribes
 It may have racial and cultural differences hence fail to understand other societies
 It requires expertise in anthropology
6) ELECTRONIC (or Audio-Visual) SOURCES
Advantages of electronic sources
 Information is easily spread to a wide range of people in a short period of time
 It can be used by even illiterates
 The sources are attractive and entertaining
 Information can be replayed / repeated for more understanding
 It is proud to the young people
 Information is generally accessible
 Some information gives firsthand information (e.g.: broadcast over television)
 Information is easily understandable because it is supported by images
DISADVANTAGES
 It is not accessible to the people with hearing and visual disabilities
 Sometimes information is broadcasted in a language that may not be understood by
listeners and viewers Information may not be easily stored by individuals
 It is very easy to spread lies which will move faster
 When people misses the information they may not get it again (for radio and
Television)
 They rely on the presence of electric power
 There is a problem of bulkiness of information especially while using internet
 The source may not be accessible to all (many people cannot afford radios, television,
computers)

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Unit 3: ORIGIN, ORGANIZATION AND EXPANSION OF RWANDAN

KINGDOM
The kingdoms in the interlacustrine Region
The interlacustrine region is the area of the north, west and southwestern shores of Lake
Victoria as far as Lake Kivu and the eastern parts of Democratic Republic of Congo. The world
Interlacusrine means the area situated between lakes
This region was inhabited by a group of kingdoms where the languages were closely related
varieties (Bantu languages).
Those kingdoms included Bunyoro – Kitara , Buganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Karagwe, Ankole,
Bunyoro,Bushi, Buhavu, Buhunde,Toro and Buhaya.they existed between 14th and 15th
centuries.
The origin and expansion of Rwandan kingdom
Definition of terms
a) Lineage: Is a group of individuals tracing descent from a common real ancestor.
There is two forms of lineage:
1. Minor lineage (inzu): this is when male children who are members of an elementary
family (urugo) become adults and get married to form their families (ingo). Members of
these families would claim to be coming from one real ancestor.
2. Major lineage: this is when a mixture of several minor lineages claiming one same,
common known ancestor.
Example: Abasyete: these are people claiming one common and known ancestor called
BUSYETE.
b) Clan: is a group of people who claim a common mythical ancestor.
Example: Abagesera.
In traditional Rwanda Clans were identified by totems
Example of clans in ancient Rwanda
Clan totem
Abanyiginya crested crane Umusambi
Abega frog Igikeri
Abazigaba Leopard Ingwe

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Abagesera Wagtail Inyamanza

Abasinga Eagle (falcon) Sakabaka
Abacyaba Hyena Impyisi
Ababanda crow
c) Dynasty: is the ruling clan. For instance, Rwanda was under Nyiginya dynasty
d) Nation: is big community of people who have a common conscious of sharing similar
historical, cultural and religious beliefs as well as linguistic identity and backgrounds
e) State: is an independent geographical territory with population governed by established
laws (or government)

Origin of Rwandan kingdom

The word "u Rwanda" comes from the verb "kwanda", i.e. to enlarge (to expand / to grow /
to become big in size). "URwanda" therefore, means "a large country". Rwanda emerged as
a centralized state in the 15th Century as is said by some Historians
The cradle of Rwanda kingdom was a Nyiginya state. This was known as 'Rwanda rugari
rwa Gasabo’ meaning, 'the vast Rwanda of Gasabo', on the shores of Lake Muhazi.
According to a legend in original stories, the first ancestor of the Banyiginya was the mystic
character known as Kigwa SABIZEZE. He is said to have fallen from heaven and landed in
Mubari in Eastern Rwanda near Akagera River. The region was at that time occupied by the
Abazigaba clan. According to official Nyiginya tradition, it was Gihanga Ngomijana, one of the
successors of Kigwa, the 10th in the genealogical list, who is given as the founder of the
Nyiginya dynasty. But this also goes for the other dynasties which were found in most of
the kingdoms in the region. He had in effect divided his empire between his sons who then
founded different dynasties.
To Kanyandorwa , he gave Ndorwa
To Kagesera he gave Bugesera
To Kanyabuha he gave Buha
To Gashubi he gave Bushubio
Kanyabungo he gave Bunyabungo

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His lastest son KANYARWANDA remained at the home land (GASABO) and of course,
replaced his father!
ORGANIZATION OF RWANDAN KINGDOM
The kingdom of Rwanda was organized in different ways which were aimed at strengthening
and developing the kingdom. These were:
Political organization
Economic organization
Social-cultural organization
REASONS FOR EXPANSION OF RWANDAN KINGDOM
Rwandan kingdom started as small state of Gasabo but later it was expanded and became
bigger than current Rwanda, it had some parts of current Uganda, DRC and Tanzania by
which most of them were lost by the coming of colonialists. The following are the factors for
expansion of Rwandan kingdom:
a) Small size, Rwanda started as a small state of Gasabo which was easy to control and
administrate hence its expansion
b) Presence of Well organized and equipped army like Ibisumizi, this army was
useful to defend the kingdom from external attack or during military campaigns to
conquer new regions, This army was made up of men who were physically fit, who
had willing heart to serve the kingdom, hence the expansion of the kingdom
c) Weak neighboring kingdoms: The weakness of the neighboring kingdoms on the
point of political, economic, military and social views like Buliza, Nduga, Bumbogo,
etc these kingdoms were attacked and easily defeated hence the expansion of
Rwanda.
d) Well structured political organization: This good political organization made the
kingdom strong and difficult to be attacked and easily defeated, hence its expansion
e) Cultural Unity of Rwandans, they were united by same language, common culture
and same religious beliefs (believed in God whom they consulted in times of trouble).
This unity developed in them the patriotic spirit, hence the expansion of Rwandan
kingdom
f) Having able and powerful leaders, Rwanda was blessed with efficient kings like
Cyirima Rujugira who introduced a lot of innovations in administration and army,

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Ruganzu II Ndoli who annexed many territories to Rwanda, king Kigeli IV Rwabugiri,
the tireless conquer of the 19th century whose sword name was Inkotanyi- Cyane,
this led to expansion of Rwanda
g) Patriotism among Rwandans: People of Rwanda strong will of fighting for their
kingdom, The kings of Rwanda were patriotic and loved their subjects like Rwabugiri
who refused to have dealings with slave traders like Rumaliza (agent of slave trader
Tip Tip). This contributed to his rise and expansion
h) The matrimonial alliances(marriage alliances) which was a political trick: For
instance Nduga was conquered because Nyirantorwa (one of Mibambwe I
Sekarongoro’s daughter) given to Mashira (king of Nduga).
i) Different gifts that soldiers received after war by great warriors (umudende for
someone who killed seven enemies, Impotore for someone who killed fourteen
enemies and Gucana uruti for the one who killed twenty one enemies).This
encouraged them to kill many enemies which led to their defeat, hence the expansion
of the kingdom.
j) Well developed exchange and trade with neighbors: Rwandans exchanged
commodities among them (barter trade), they also exchanged commodities with
neighbouring kingdoms Eg: salt from Lake Katwe in Uganda
k) Fertile soil and good climate which favored agricultural production (growing crops
and animal raising), this made the kingdom able to feed the army and the people,
leading to its expansion
l) Strong economy: traditional rwanda enjoyed a long period of economic stability
which enabled them to manage such repeatedly wars and ending successfully.
m) Good succession system: the king was replaced by his own son (Patrimonial system)
who was secretly and wisely prepared by the royal custodians (Abiru).
n) Motivational sayings which boosted the spirit of Rwandan army whenever they
were on batlle. Example is famous URWANDA RURATERA NTIRUTERWA By King
CYILIMA RUJUGIRA.
o) Social political practices like ITORERO whereby all teenage boys were militarily
trained and this led to invincibility of Rwanda hence expansion.
FACTORS FOR THE DOWNFALL OF RWANDAN KINGDOM

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1) The coming of Europeans : those European (Dr Oscar Baumann who came in 1892 and
Von Goetzen who came in 1894) reported about the kingdom, this led Rwanda to become
German protectorate in 1987 and Belgian colonization from 1916, by this, the kingdom
started to decline.
2) Reforms done by Belgian colonialists: Belgian colonialists introduced reforms which
weakened the kingdom for instance they reduced the king’s power, abolished traditional
institutions like ubwiru and umuganura, hence downfall of Rwandan kingdom .
3) Succession disputes (Rucuncu coup d’Etat): this happened after the death of king Kigeli
IV Rwbugiri by 1895. After this death Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa become the king but his
stepmother; queen mother Kanjogera who wanted her son Musinga to be the king, helped
with her brothers she planned Rucuncu coup d’état. This led to disunity among Rwandans
hence its decline .
4) Revolts and rejection of Musinga as king: those revolts were organized by some chiefs
(like Rukara, Basebya, Ndungutse, Nyiragahumuza) against Musinga because of Rucuncu
coup d’état. Those revolts weakened the kingdom hence its decline. .
5) Death of able leaders: the death king Mutara III Rudahigwa by 1959 was followed by
political and ethnic violence, coup d’etat of Gitarama and abolition of monarchy on 28th
January 1961. This marked the total downfall of Rwandan kingdom and replaced by
republic.
6) The death of king Kigeli IV Rwabugiri in 1895: this caused the economic decline
because Rwandans mourned his death for six months without working, leading to severe
famine hence the decline of the kingdom
7) The large size of Rwandan kingdom: by the 19th century, Rwanda was very big which
made it difficult its control. Due to this, some regions like Bukunzi, Gisaka and Busozo
together with other parts of the north become resistant leading to the decline of Rwandan
kingdom
8) Many wars against neighbors especially under king Kigeli IV Rwabugiri’s rule: those
wars used to cost Rwanda numerous losses of her strong and experienced soldiers who
would not be replaced in short period of time, leading to the decline of the kingdom
9) Decline of economic activities: the economy of the kingdom was based on agriculture
and animal keeping but the kingdom used to suffer from prolonged droughts and famine

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like Rukungugu, Ruyaga, Rumanura, etc. due to this Rwandans migrated to neighbouring
kingdoms, leading to the decline of Rwandan kingdom.
THE MOST IMPORTANT MONARCHS IN RWANDAN KINGDOM ( BELT KINGS)
1. Ruganzu I Bwimba (1312-1345)
Ruganzu I Bwimba replaced his father king NSORO, his mother was Nyiraruganzu
Nyakanga. He started with territorial conquest with Gisaka which was ruled by KIMENYI
Musaya but he did not succeed, he was killed in about 1345 at a place called Bucengeri in
Gisaka in Eastern province. By his death his sister Robwa Nyiramateke who was married
to Kimenyi committed suicide.
2. Kigeli I Mukobanya (1379-1411)
MUKOBANYA was the son of King CYIRIMAI Rugwe, his mother was Nyirakigeli
Nyarugwe. During his reign, there was the first Nyoro attack on the kingdom of Rwanda,
those Nyoro were led by Chwa. Their attack was broken up, they were dispersed and quit
the kingdom but without burning and taking and looting a large number of cattle.
3. RUGANZU II NDOLI (1510-1543)
NDOLI was the son of king NDAHIRO Cyamatare and Nyiraruganzu Nyabacuzi. Ndoli was
known as a greater fighter, hunter and poet. He grew up in exile at Karagwe (Tanzania)at
his Aunt Nyabunyana, after eleven years, he returned to Rwanda and enthroned at Gasabo
(Ngarama)and given the royal name RUGANZU II NDOLI.
NDOLI launched a series of invasions against the formerly independent communities
which resulted in father expansion of Rwanda for instance:
 Ndoli attacked North and West of Rwanda and incorporated the Kivu shore states
into Rwanda with the help of his warriors known as Ibisumizi
 He defeated Ijwi Island
 He killed NZIRA king of Bunyabungo but he did not defeat Bunyabungo
 He attacked Bunyambiriri and killed its leader Gisurere
 He attacked and annexed Bwanamukali after killing its leader Mpandahande
 He attacked Burwi and annexed the territory after killing its king Nyaruzi
 He defeated Byinshi, son of Bamara
 He attacked and killed Nyakarashi of Zivuhe, by this he recovered the territories of
Rwanda that had been annexed by the Banyabungo and Bagara

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 He annexed Bugoyi, Byahi and Bufumbira.

Ruganzu II Ndoli distinguished himself through the following important acts:
- Stabilization of borders
- Foundation of national unity
- Institutionalization of the emblematic drum: Kalinga and its two assistants Kalihejuru
and Baliba. Kalinga royal drum replaced Rwoga which was taken away after the death of
his father Cyamatare
- Creation of standing army called Ibisumizi and Ingangurarugo

Ndoli died in about 1543 at a place called Musaho-Wa-Rubengera while fighting the
people of Kibuye who had rebelled against his rule.
4. CYILIMA II RUJGIRA (1690-1708)
Rujugira was a strong and powerful warrior who succeeded Karemera Rwaka. His father
was Yuhi III Mazimpaka, his mother was Nyiracyilima Kirongoro.
- During his rule, Rwanda was strongly protected from external aggression
- Rujugira fought and defeated those who wanted to dethrone him
- He fought and conquered three territories:
 Burundi’s territory of Buyenzi
 Gisaka’s territory of Buganza
 Ndorwa from Umutara
- He regained the territories taken by Ndorwa after the death of Ndahiro II Cyamatare
- He killed Rubunda chief of Ndorwa and captured the Murorwa royal drum
- He created militias like Inyakare, Invejuru, Inyaruguru.
Saying that Rwanda invades but is not invaded (U Rwanda ruratera ntiruterwa) started
during his reign. Rujugira died at a very old age at his palace at a place called Ntora (near
Kigali) which later renamed Gisozi.
5. YUHI IV GAHINDIRO (1746-1802)
GAHINDIRO was son of king Sentabyo and Nyirayuhi Nyirarutunga. He came to power when
he was still an infant (one year old). His mother ruled on his behalf with his brother Rugagi.
His royal palace was at Rubona-rwa-Gihara near Runda.
– He fought and conquered south of Ndorwa and Buhunde

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– He annexed to Rwanda the Buyenzi territory (territory of Burundi)

– At his reign there was Rukungugu famine because of drought
He died at about the age between 65 and 75 and was buried at Kayenzi (Tumba) the cemetery
of the kings with the name YUHI.

6. MUTARA II RWOGERA (1802-1853)

Rwogera was son of Yuhi IV Gahindiro and Nyiraruvugo Nyiramongi.
During his reign he attacked and conquered Gisaka kingdom but failed to capture the
Rukurura royal drum.

Ijwi Island declared its independence during his reign

Rwogera was died of tuberculosis in 1853 and was buried at Rwamiko in northern region
7. KIGELI IV RWABUGIRI (1853-1895)
Rwabugiri was born at Giseke, his father was Mutara II Rwogera and his mother was
Nyirakigeri Murorunkwere. He came to power at age between seven and ten.
Rwabugiri’s policies were:
 To strengthen military power of the nation
 To put the central institutions of power upon the support of agriculturalists
 To weaken the power of clans, great feudatories and provincial chiefs
 To divert the energies of Rwandans from internal matters to military expeditions
His two goals in domestic policy were:
- Centralization of power
- Extension of the central political structures to marginal areas of the kingdom
In foreign policy he led a series of military campaign in both Western and Eastern Rwanda.
Rwaugiri was the tireless conquer of the 19th century whose sword name was Inkotanyi-
Cyane.
Rwabugiri introduced manufactured goods from Europe and Asia like cotton clothes, glass
products, guns, etc
At the end of his reign, in 1894, a German explorer called Adolf Von Goetzen visited
Rwabugiri at his palace at Mukore hill.
Rwabugiri died in Bushi (DRC) in September 1895 while on an expedition.

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UNIT 4: CIVILIZATION OF PRE-COLONIAL RWANDA

Civilization is an advanced ways / means of living in the society. This advancement can
appear in different fields such as politics, economy, social, cultural, etc.
Components of civilization
1. Religion: a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the
sacred
2. Art and Architecture: Various types of artwork and buildings that express the talents,
beliefs, and values of people in a society.
3. Economy: the way people use resources to meet their needs
4. Trade and Transportation: An organized network of roads, railways, and ports for
moving people and goods from place to place
5. Technology: tools and skills that people use to make life easier in society
6. Cultural: the way of life of people in a society or a given area.
7. Language and writing: The system of communication involving symbols that stand for
sounds and ideas to record information.
8. Politics: this is the power or authority that rules the society. It involves laws, how people
decide on foreign relations such as war or peace, collect taxes, justice and provides services
needed by general public
Thus good governance and better administration could boost civilization in a given society.
SOCIAL, CULTURAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION OF PRE-COLONIAL
RWANDA
Social organization
Rwandan society was made of the following elements:
1. Family
Nuclear family and extended family
Lineage (example: Abarashi of Nyakarashi, Abananura of Kananura)
Clan (example: Abanyiginya, Abazigaba, Abega)
2. Marriage: it was an alliance between families which result from the union of individuals
(boy and girl). When a boy or a girl reached 18 yeas old, arrangement for marriage would be
done.

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3. Solidarity: solidarity is a result of an alliance between individuals and families and the
sentiment that pushes people towards mutual assistance. In ancient Rwanda, Solidarity
manifested through the following actions:
- Vendetta (Guhora)
- Marriage (gishyingirana)
- Visits (gusurana)
- Cow giving (Kugabirana inka)
- Physical mutual help (Gutabarana)
- Physical and moral presence during the time of happiness (Kwishimana)
- Helping one another in some activities involving community intervention like Ubudehe and
Umuganda (Gufashanya)
5. Division of works
In ancient Rwandan traditional society there were activities reserved for men, women and
children. It was structured in the following ways:
 Men did the fishing, hunting, field works, building and looking after domestic animals
 Women cleared and looked after homes, kitchen works, collecting fire wood, fetching
water, knitting, educating and caring young children
 Children collected fire wood, fetched water and swept the ground. As children grew
up, parents began to initiate them in the works of adults according to their sex.
6. Food: Rwandans fed on agricultural and animal products
They grew the following crops:
 Millet  Maize
 Banana  Pumpkins
 Sorghum  Tobacco
 Vegetables  Beans
 Sweet Potatoes  peas
 Yams
They reared these animals
Cows for milk, meat and blood (blood as food)
Hen for eggs and religious practices (KURAGURA)

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Goats for meat women were not supposed to eat goat meat; sheep, hens and eggs they were
eaten by children only
7. Traditional drinks: Rwandans drank banana beer (Urwagwa), sorghum beer ( Ikigage),
honey, milk and porridge. porridge was for mothers, sick and children people
8. Clothing: traditional clothes were made from plant products/trees and animal skins
a) Plant product clothes: bark clothes from the skin of fig tree and banana stem barks
b) Clothes of skins: those were made from skins of calves, goats, sheep and leopard
i. Girls wore Ishabure, Ikinyita and Indengera made from cow hides
ii. Women wore Inkanda (from cow hides) and Ibicirane (from goat skins)
iii. Men and grown boys wore calf skins, goat skins and sheep skins or Imbuzi made from bark
trees
iv. Boys over ten years put on what is known as Urunyonga
v. Young children up the age of ten remains naked
vi. Kings and chiefs wore leopard skins
9. Education: Rwandans had informal education:
Girls got education from their mothers and aunts about how to take care home in
URUBOHERO
Boys got education from their fathers about hunting and agriculture
Young boys were trained as warriors they were known as Intore
Cultural organization
1. Oral literature
Oral literature included poetry, pastoral poems, dynastic poems, family and dynastic
genealogy, historic stories
Rwandese traditional music was made of ritual songs, hunting songs, war songs, love songs
and pastoral melodies.
Traditional music instruments were:
-Umuduri -Icyembe -Ikondera -Umwirongi (flute)
-Iningiri -Inanga (harp) -Ingoma (drum)
2. Traditional religion
a) The concept of Imana (God)

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Religion of traditional Rwanda was founded on belief in one Supreme Being whose name was
IMANA (God).
This supremacy was seen in giving Imana different names like: Ruhanga, Iyakare, Rugaba,
Iyambere.
Imana was present in thoughts of every Rwandan, for instance:
 Imana yirirwa ahandi igataha I Rwanda
 Imana is omnipresent: whatever he does succeeds (Bikorimana, Nibishaka)
 Imana gives life: Habyarimana
 Imana insure growth of children (Harerimana, Hakuzimana)
 Imana gives properties and wealth (Hakizimana,Hagenimana, Iragena, Irakiza)
 Imana knows every one’s destiny(Niyibizi, Niyigena)
b) The concept of Abazimu (spirits of departed)
Ancient Rwandan traditional society believed in spirits of departed.
Abazimu were invisible and immortal beings but they preoccupied and worried the livings
who must appease through cults like Guterekera, a cult that precedes Kuraguza.
 Guterekera was a way of appeasing the living dead (abazimu) so that they stop
attacking the living and their descendants
 Kuraguza was spiritual divination to consult the gods and keep in touch
 Kubandwa was a cult rendered to Ryangombe for protection against any curses from
spirits of the dead and also for obtaining long life for children, cows and having good
harvests, protection against sorcerers and witches
3. Traditional rites related to daily life
The followings were the rites of Rwandans:
a) Child naming: the ceremony begun with bringing the new born out of the house seven
days after birth (at the eighth day), all village children aged between 3 to 10 were invited.
The eating of those children was called “kurya ubunnyano”, after eating they were each
requested to give name to the new born
b) Sexual initiation for girls (gukuna): this was a practice of elongating the labia minora (
the inner vaginal lips). The goal was to achieve a labia length of about 5centimeter; it was
done to increase sexual pleasure for both genders.
It was practiced to girls at 12 years old (puberty)

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c) Marriage: this was an act of public confirmation of the love between two people of
opposite sex act of joining two families, When boy wanted to marry his family would give
dowry (dowry was in form of cow)
d) Death ceremony: this was marked by prayers, speeches and rituals.
After death close family members do not works in the fields or have sexual relations during
the period of mourning (ikiriyo).
Kwirabura: it is a sad moment in memory of someone who was died
Kwera: is the end of a mourning period of the memory of the dead (kurangiza ikiriyo)
4. Taboos and Forbidden things
These were things that a certain sections of Rwandans were prohibited from doing.
For example:
 A girl or woman was prohibited from milking cows when she is in her monthly period
 It was forbidden to sit on a mortar
 It was forbidden to kill a wagtail
 Girls were forbidden to climb trees
 A wife was not supposed to mention the name of her father in law
POLITICAL AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION
1. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
a) Administrative structure
The King: he occupied the top most position in the political, administrative and military
hierarchy to the extent that these functions were closely linked.
The king came from Abanyiginya clan (Nyiginya was the ruling dynasty)
 The King was the owner of everything including the people and had every right to
life and death over his subjects/ People
 The king could appoint and dismiss leaders, he had power to wage war and
conquest.
 He was in charge of the armies, law maker and supreme judge.
 He was also the supreme judge
 He was a great personality because of different important roles he played
In his function, the King was assisted by:
The Queen mother: she was usually the mother of the king or step mother

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- She was the first advisor of the king

- She could orient the action of the king
- She could act as regent in case the king came to throne when he was still young
The custodians of the esoteric code (Abiru): The function of Abiru was hereditary
- They were guardians of tradition and royal secrets
- There were second advisors of the king after the queen mother
- The king confided Abiru the name of his successor and the king passed recommendations
to his successor through them
Abiru were responsible for knowing:
 The order in which queen mothers were chosen and the matri-dynastic clan of the
next queen mother
 Rules of the enthronement of the new king
 Rules regarding decoration of the royal drum
The great chiefs (Abatware b’Intebe): were heads of districts (Ibiti)
Great chiefs were appointed by the king and lived most of their lives in the royal palace.Their
functions:
 Appointing in turn their representatives in their districts
 They controlled farmers and cattle keepers
 They controlled sub-chiefs (land sub-chiefs, cattle sub-chiefs and army commanders)
 They raised taxes for the king known as Ikoro
 They have to give land to those who did not have it
Ibikingi trio chiefs
Igikingi can be considered as Districts in our days. They were led by the following 3 people:
 Chief of land
 Chief of cattle
 Chief of army
The chief of land (Umutware w’Ubutaka):
He was in charge of agricultural production as main function.
He was also responsible for collecting royal tributes (Amakoro)
He had to settle disputes arising from land
The chief of cattle (Umutware w’Umukenke):

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 He was responsible for pastures in his Igikingi and collect taxes from cattle
keepers.
 He had to know and supervise pastures reserved for Inyambo (which were
bred and raised cows for royal court)
 He did not have any judiciary authority over any conflict.
The Army chief (Umutware w’Ingabo):
The Army chief was the most important among the above ones. His responsibilities
were the following:
 Recruiting fighters in the army
 Monitoring the districts and reporting to the king
 Preparing the soldiers for war
 Supplying the courts with certain items
 He was responsible for settling conflicts between pastoralists
 Performing any other duty as assigned by the king
 He had to settle disputes between other chiefs
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE
Administrative structure of ancient Rwanda was organized as follow:
1. The Kingdom
2. Ibiti
3. Ibikingi
4. Village (Umurenge): led by village sub-chiefs
5. Minor lineage (Inzu): led by chief of lineage (Umutware w’umuryango)
6. Homesteads (Ingo): led by Family heads
7. At the bottom, there were the mass peasants who constituted the rest of the population.
2. MILITARY ORGANIZATION
In Pre-colonial Rwanda, the military institution was a kind of school where young boys got
traditional education (itorero) where they learnt and practiced the following values:
-Generosity -Moral responsibility - physical fitness
-Courage -Self discipline - tactics of fighting
-Patriotism -Quality of being a man - intelligence
Here are some examples of military training groups in ancient Rwanda:

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 Inyaruguru  Ibisumizi
 Indengabaganizi  Ingangurarugo
 Indashyikirwa  Among others
Army/ soldier in ancient Rwanda had the following main responsibilities:
 Ensuring territorial security
 To protect the country from any sort of interference and against enemy
 Extending the boundaries of Rwanda by attacking neighboring states
3. ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
a) Agriculture: this refers to growing of crops and rearing animals, Crops growing
Traditionally, Rwandan farmers practiced subsistence agriculture. Crops grown included the
following:
-Millet -Pumpkins -Banana
-Sorghum -Beans -vegetables -Maize
-Potatoes -Yams -Peas -Sweet potatoes
Agriculture helped Rwandans to feed their families; acquire tools, arms, utensils and be able
to pay tributes to their chiefs and to the royal courts
Animal rearing
Rwandans kept cattle, goats, sheep, hens, dogs, pigs, chicken and bees. Dogs were for hunting
and guarding homes. Animal rearing was very important in ancient Rwanda because it
provided food, milk, skins (used to make clothes and other materials) and horns.
Cows were reared for social exchange (giving cow /Kugabirana and giving cows as dowry in
marriage), prestige, respect, milk, food and skins. It was also the symbol of richness.
b) Trade
Traditional Rwandan trade was a barter system (it involved exchange of goods for other
goods). It was based on exchange of agricultural, animal and handcrafts products.
It was practiced between Rwandans themselves and with neighboring kingdoms such as
Ankole, Burundi, Buganda, Bushi and Karagwe.
c) Art and handcraft
Handcraft was a very important activity in the daily life of Rwandans, from handcraft; they
got most tools for their daily needs. For instance:

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 They made clothes including those of kings made of leopard and lion skins, those of
common people made of hides of cows or sheep and skins of tree called umuvumu.
 They made metal like spears, arrows, hoes, axes, swords, hammers, knives
 They made wooden tools like bowl (Imbehe), mortar (Isekuru), banana wine press
(umuvure), milk pots (Ibyansi), spoons (Indosho,imyuko, utumamiyo)
 Basket making was done by women, they used materials like wild millet grass
(Urumamfu), papyrus stems, dead banana leaves, etc for making materials like mats,
baskets among others
They also made pottery. (from the clay)
FAMINE AND EPIZOOTIES IN ANCIENT RWANDA
a) FAMINES: Although in Rwanda a lot was done to make sure there was enough food, there
was times of famines mainly because of climatic conditions (either too much rain or drought)
and war period. The most known famines
During the pre-colonial period  Kiramwaramwara (1910)
 Macumu (1690)  Rumanura (1917-1918)
 Rukungugu (1797)  Gakwege (1924-1925)
 Muhatigicumuro (1890)  Rwakayihura (1928-1929)
During colonial period  Ruzagayura (1940-1945)
 Gashogoro (1904)
b) EPIZOOTIES
 1890-1891: Muryamo (cattle  1904-1905: cerebral disease
plague)  1907-1908: Uburenge
 1892: Uburenge (foot and mouth  1920-1921: Iragara (animal
disease) which was introduced black)
cows forayed from Ndorwa under
Rwabugiri
SOCIAL- ECONOMIC DEPENDENCE IN ANCIENT RWANDA
1. Ubukake: This was a dependence based on possession of cows, it was a customary
contract which was not obligatory between the owner of cattle (shebuja/ Patron) and a
person who wished to get a cow (umugaragu/ client)
Duties of the client (Umugaragu):

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 Cultivating the fields of the patron for some days

 Looking after cattle of the patron
 Repairing homesteads of the patron
 Guarding home of the patron at night
 Provision of local beer to the patron
 Being a messenger of the patron
 Building the fences of the patron
 Escorting the patron to war / kumwimana
 Taking part in the patron’s happy or sad events
 Etc
Duties of the patron (Shebuja):
 Protect the client against his enemies who were socially stronger than him
 Giving cows to the client who performed well his duties
 Assist the client in court
 Redeeming the client
 Contribute to the formation of new herd (Kuremera) in case of cattle epizooties
A bad client was deprived of all cows he would have been given by the patron
(Kunyagwa)
The entry and exit in Clientage was done willingly and freely. these relations could be
ended when either the patron or the client wished so.
2. Ubukonde: This was the right which gave authority to the clan and lineage heads on their
respective zones they had cleared.
The members of the clan or lineage lived in close manner on their collective land called
Ubukonde which was managed by the head of clan who was responsible for allocating land
inside his zone of influence to his subjects. The male recipients of land were called
Abagererwa and the Land owners were called Abakonde.
Unlike Ubuhake, Abagererwa offered part of the harvest to their Landload (including some
sorghum, millet, beans and peas) and free labor.

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UNIT 5: GENOCIDE AND ITS FEATURES

1. Definition: Genocide is a deliberate systematic extermination/ killing of one or a part of
group of people by the other group based on their belief, political affairs, economy, social
situation, their culture race region etc., under the support of the current Government. That
is to say that Genocide cannot be committed without the involvement of the existing
government
Examples of Genocides:
The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda
The Jews genocide or Holocaust (1939-1945)
The Armenian Genocide of 1915
2. Features of Genocide
 Involvement of the government that put in place all necessary measures to destroy
the targeted group
 Intention of destroying or completely wiping out the targeted group
 Selection of the group to kill
 Innocent people are killed because they belong to the targeted group
 Cruel forms of killing are employed Examples:
- Raping girls and women
- Abduction and torture of innocent people before killing them
- Throwing babies to walls
- Pounding babies in mortars
- Confining (detaining) and starving victims to death
- Burying victims alive
- Wounding (maiming) and shooting them to death
 Large-scale killing of the targeted group
 Attacks and killing are intentional not accidental
Stages of Genocide elaborated by GREGORY STANTON
According to academic and activist Gregory H. Stanton, genocide is a process that develops
in ten stages, described here. The stages do not necessarily follow a linear progression and
may coexist.

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1. Classification
Groups in a position of power will categorize people according to ethnicity, race, religion or
nationality employing an us versus them mentality.
Prevention: Create universalistic institutions that foster social cohesion.
2. Symbolisation
People are identified as Jews, Roma or Tutsis, etc., and made to stand out from others with
certain colours or symbolic articles of clothing.
3. Discrimination
A dominant group uses laws, customs, and political power to deny the rights of other groups.
The powerless group may not be granted full civil rights or even citizenship.
4. Dehumanisation
The diminished value of the discriminated group is communicated through propaganda.
Parallels are drawn with animals, insects or diseases.
5. Organisation
A state, its army or militia design genocidal killing plans.
6. Polarisation
Propaganda is employed to amplify the differences between groups. Interactions between
groups are prohibited, and the moderate members of the group in power are killed.
7. Preparation
The victims are identified, separated and forced to wear symbols. Deportations, isolation and
forcible starvation. Death lists are drawn up.
8. Persecution
Victims are identified and isolated based on their ethnic or religious identity. Death lists are
drawn up. In state sponsored genocides, members of victim groups may be forced to wear
identifying symbols. Their property is often expropriated.
9. Extermination
The massacres begin. The perpetrators see their actions as “extermination” since they do not
consider their victims to be entirely human.
10. Denial
The perpetrators of the genocide deny having committed their crimes. Victims are often
blamed. Evidence is hidden and witnesses are intimidated.

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5. Genocide and other mass crimes

Mass crime is an act or crime committed against a large number of people within a short or
long period of time during war or any other kind of conflicts by individuals, terrorists, groups
of people, armed men and states.
Mass crimes include genocide crimes, war crimes and crimes against humanity
The basic difference between genocide and other mass crimes (crimes against humanity and
war crimes) is as follows:
Crimes against humanity are widespread or systematic attacks on the civilian population,
irrespective of whether the people are nationals or non-nationals and irrespective of
whether the attacks are committed in time of war or in time of peace. The attacks can for
instance constitute murder, extermination, forced displacement, slavery, rape, torture and
other inhumane acts.

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