CHAPTER NAME

Nisha Gupta

IX

A/B/C/D

BIOLOGY

NOTES

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INTRODUCTION
As we know the body of an individual is of complex type. If we study about the detailed
structure of the human body or of any lower organism, we will come across many things that
makes up the body. But at the smallest level, our body is made up of tiny units called cells.
Let us learn about cell in detail.
Cell is often referred as “structural and functional unit of living organisms”. The reason is that
the cell is the smallest unit of body and directly or indirectly, it is responsible for functions
also. If we study about the hierarchy then we will notice that the level of organization is :

That means that the smallest unit of body is cell.

DISCOVERY OF CELL
The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in a thin slice of cork in 1665.
Cork is actually a dead part of tree that is bark of tree. He discovered it with the help of
instrument called microscope. He discovered with the help of instrument that is microscope
which was discovered by Anton von Leeuwenhoek.

When he saw the internal structure of cork with the help of microscope it looked like
compartments. So, earlier these cells were named as compartments but later on it was
replaced by term cell.

It was concluded that all the cells have three basic characteristics. –
They contain plasma membrane: – made up of lipid & proteins
They contain genes: – Genetic material in form of DNA or RNA containing genes is present.
They contain metabolic machinery: – Cytoplasm is present which contain organelles like
mitochondria etc.
CELL THEORY
Cell Theory was given by volunteers: Sheldon & Schwann(1838-39).
According to this theory: –

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Cell is the structural unit of life.
Cell is functional unit of life.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells. Every organism starts life as a single cell. (It was given
by R. Virchow)
TYPES OF CELLS – PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
There are two main types of divisions of cells depending upon their basic and important
difference in their structures. The types are:
• Prokaryotic (primitive cell)
• Eukaryotic (advanced type)
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell: The basic difference between the two is: In prokaryotic, the
nuclear material lies naked in cytoplasm that is no special membrane is present that
separates it from the cytoplasm. It is present as such in cytoplasm.
In eukaryotic, the nuclear material is well protected and enclosed by special membrane that
is nuclear membrane.
Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

• Small in size • Large in size

• Nuclear material lies naked in • Nuclear material is surrounded by
cytoplasm nuclear membrane
• Contain single chromosome • Contain more than one chromosome
• Organelles absent • Organelles presents
• Nucleolus absent • Nucleolus present
• Cell division by fission etc • Cell division by mitosis or meiosis.
• Eg : bacteria blue green algae etc. • Eg. Man etc.

Cell shape and Cell size

It is seen that cells can be of different shapes and sizes and even their number that make up
a body can be different in different living forms as it depends upon the function the cell is
going to perform. Accordingly, the structures, sizes, shapes are assigned to cells.
The shape of a cell may change or fixed.

Shape of cells
The shape can be fixed or can be variable.
The cells with Variable shape are WBC (white blood cell) and Amoeba.
Please do remember that “the shape of the cell depends upon the function it performs”.
Different Shapes that the cell can have: –
Spherical => eggs of many animals
Spindle shaped => smooth muscle fiber
Elongated => nerve cell

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Branched => cells of skin
Discoid => RBC.
Size of cell
Sizes also show a lot of variations. We have cell that is too tiny like PPLO to largest cell in
the form of an ostrich egg
Smallest cell – Mycoplasm largest cell – Ostrich egg

In Human body the smallest cell is: – RBC and longest /largest is Nerve cell .Nerve cell is
designed accordingly to function it performs. As we cleared above also shapes are in
accordance to function. Like, nerve cell help in transmission of impulse. So, it has to be long
and branched.

Cell number
The number of cells also varies from species to species. There can be organism made up of
one cell and there can also be organism like us whose body is made up of many cells.
Depending upon the number of cells present, cells are of two types:
• Unicellular
• Multicellular
Unicellular organisms – are single celled body (example Amoeba).
Multicellular – are multi-celled body that is many cells (example Man)

Structure of cell
If we look at the structure of cell we have already seen that all cells have three things in
common:
• Cell membrane
• Nuclear material
• Cytoplasm.

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CELL MEMBRANE AND CELL WALL
This gives a covering to all cells and the characteristics that it possess are listed below :
* It is present in both plant & animal cell
* It is an outer covering of cell
* It is living, thin and delicate membrane.
* It is semi-permeable – “allows selective particle to pass through.”
* It is made up of lipids & proteins.
It allows only selected substances to move through it .The movement of substances takes
place by activities like: –
• Diffusion – “movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower
concentration”. It is mostly seen in case of Gases. For example: Cell respire i.e.
intake of O2 & giving out CO2 take place through diffusion.
• Osmosis: “movement of solvent molecules from higher cone. to lower conc. across
the semipermeable membrane.
Functions of plasma membrane
a) It provides support to cell
b) It allow exchange of materials.
c) It provides shape to the cell.
Transportation of substances
As we have seen that substances move in and out from the cell. These exchange mainly
occur by two processes:
• Diffusion
• Osmosis

DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS

Diffusion: It is the movement of any substance from higher concentration to lower
concentration.
Have you noticed the fragrance of your favorite food at your home when it surprisingly
cooked for you by your mom.
This is due to the process diffusion. When it is being cooked in kitchen its fragrant molecules
from kitchen start moving out into the kitchen’s surroundings and with time get dispersed in
the air.

The diffusion is seen in solids, liquids and gases but the rate of diffusion is faster in gases.
This is because gas particles are energetic as they possess high kinetic energy. The
movement of gases in and out from the cell occurs by diffusion.
Osmosis: It is the movement of pure liquid from higher concentration to lower concentration
across the semipermeable membrane .

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For example: if you take two flasks and fill one with low sugar so lution and other flask with
highly concentrated sugar solution. Both the beakers are separated by a semipermeable
membrane. Then we will notice that the water will move from the beaker where it is more to
the side where it is less. The membrane allows only water to pass through it not sugar as it
is semi-permeable that is selectively permeable.
Types of solutions
We can make three different types of solutions that is :
1. Hypotonic solution – The solution that has higher water concentration.
2. Hypertonic solution- The solution that has less water concentration.
3. Isotonic solution-The solution that has the same concentration of water as in cell.
Now let’s do an activity in which we will be placing a cell say red blood cell in three different
solutions. Let’s see what happens:

Cells placed in different types of solutions

Have you seen that Red blood cell in hypotonic solution looks turgid?

This is because when it is placed in a hypotonic solution, the water from solution moves into
cell (endo-osmosis) due to which cell starts swelling up. The fully swollen cell in which the
protoplasm almost touches the cell membrane is called Turgid cell.
Have you seen the red blood cell kept in hypertonic solution looks flaccid
This is because when it is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water from cell moves into
solution (exosmosis) occurs due to which cell starts shrinking up. The cell whose protoplasm
almost gets shrunk is called flaccid cell.
Have you seen the cell in isotonic solution
It remains as such. Nothing happens. The reason being the concentration of cell and a
solution is the same.
Q. Have you noticed that sometimes when you forget to water plants especially in summers
they droop, dry and ultimately they are about to die .
A. This is because the water from the plant is moving out due to transpiration. So, when
there is no water left in them they start to droop. This basically occurs due to exosmosis. But
when it is watered again, the endo osmosis occurs and it again become turgid .this is called
plasmolysis (shrinkage) and deplasmolysis (again becoming healthier).
In plant cells outer to cell membrane another layer or covering is present called as cell wall.
It is present in all plant cells.

CELL WALL
• It is outer to cell membrane

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 • It is dead
• It is present only in plant cell
• It is made up of cellulose (in fungus it is made of chitin)
• It is freely permeable
Functions of cell wall
• It provides mechanical support to cell.
• It allows materials to exchange.
• It maintains the shape of cells.
The cell consist of cell membrane and it encloses called a living material protoplasm.
Protoplasm is defined as living material of cell. The term protoplasm was coined by: J.E
Purkinjee.
It is further divided into two parts:
• Nucleus (discovered by Robert Brown)
• Cytoplasm

NUCLEUS
Like we have brain, the cell has a nucleus. All the activities are controlled by nucleus. It is
located in the centre of the cell.
It consists of different components:
1. Nuclear membrane
2. Nucleoplasm
3. Nuclear material
4. Nucleolus

1. Nuclear membrane: -It is the membrane that separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm. The membrane has pores in it which allow only selected exchange of
materials. It is therefore called semi permeable in nature.
2. Nucleoplasm: It is the liquid in the nucleus that is cytoplasm of nucleus. It is similar to
cytoplasm outer to nucleus except that it lacks organelles.
3. Nucleolus: It is a small oval body rich in proteins and RNA, RNA is ribonucleic acid
and it is the genetic material. It is site for ribosome formation. That is why it is often
termed as factory for ribosome.

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 4. Nuclear material: It contains thread like structures which further condense at the time
of cell division to ribbon like structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes
are made up of DNA and proteins. There are segments of DNA that are responsible
for characters in a body or transfer of characters from parents to offspring and are
called genes. They act as hereditary vehicles.
Functions of nucleus
• It regulates the cell cycle.
• It controls metabolic activities of cell.
• It contains genes that help in transmission of characters from parents to offspring .

CYTOPLASM
It is the liquid material of cell. Its soluble part is called cytosol. It contains organelles. These
organelles perform necessary functions for the cell like some organelles help in cleaning the
cell, some help in synthesizing certain substances for the cell, some perform catabolic
function like breakdown of food, etc. Let us study them in detail:

CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

There are many types of organelles that help the cell in performing different functions. The
different organelles are :
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Ribosome
• Golgi bodies
• Lysosomes
• Mitochondria
• Plastids
• Vacuole
• Centrosome
Detail study of cell orgenelles
1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

It is an irregular network of membranes enclosing fluid in its cavity .they are of two types that
is:
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum(RER)

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 • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum(SER)
The basic difference between the two is that:
• RER – It has ribosomes attached to it.
• SER : – No ribosome are attached
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum
• SER helps in synthesizing fats etc.
• Endoplasmic reticulum forms skeleton framework of cell.
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum helps in transportation of proteins.
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum helps in detoxification.
• Oxidative enzymes of lysosomes are produced by Rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• Endoplasmic reticulum helps in formation of membrane of cell .

2. RIBOSOME
They are present in plant as well as in animal cell. They are spherical particles found free or
attached to Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. They contain their own genetic material that is
RNA & proteins.Their function is protein synthesis. Due to the reason they are called as
factory of proteins.

3. GOLGI BODIES
This organelle is present in plant and animal cells both. They are membrane bound fluid
filled vesicles and flattened membranes stacked over one another called cisternae. In plant
cells it is called by a special name that is Dictyosome.
Function: They secrete, packages and dispatch the cellular secretions and also helps in the
formation of cell membrane.

4.LYSOSOMES
They are present in plant as well as in animal cell. They are membrane bound vesicle
containing powerful digestive enzymes. These enzymes can carry out the catabolic function
Function: Its functions are:
• They can destroy foreign material.
• They can remove worn out parts of the cell.
It acts as suicidal bags as they can even eat up their own cells if in case it gets damaged.

5. MITOCHONDRIA
They are rod shaped structures having a double membrane.
Its outer membrane is – porous

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Its inner membrane is folded to form cristae & contain small bodies called oxysomes.
It has a cavity that is filled with matrix (fluid) containing DNA and ribosomes.
Its function is to produce energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) and is also
designated as called as Power House of cell (due to production of energy).

6. PLASTIDS
These are only found in plant cells. They are of three types: –
• Leucoplast – It is colourless plastid.
• Chromoplast – It is coloured plastid.
• Chloroplast –It is green coloured plastid.
Plants have the to synthesize their own food. They do so with the help of pigment
chlorophyll. This chlorophyll is present in organelle chloroplast.
Chloroplasts are double membrane organelles containing liquid stoma and stacked
structures called lamellae. When lamellae are stacked over one another they give rise to
grana. Grana contains green pigment chlorophyll. This chlorophyll actually helps in capturing
solar energy and converting it to chemical energy of food.
Functions of plastids
• Chloroplast helps in photosynthesis
• Leucoplast – stores food, fats etc.
• Chromoplast impart colour to flowers.

7. VACUOLE
They are fluid filled membrane bound spaces. They are prominent and large in plants but in
animal cell they are either absent or if present they are small and temporary. In animal cell it
helps in storing substances.
In plant cell vacuole are large & permanent. Outer membrane is called as tonoplast and is
filled with fluid called cell sap
Functions of vacuole are as follows-
• It provides turgidity & rigidity to cell.
• It stores substances.
• It maintains the osmotic pressure of cell.

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8. CENTROSOME
It is found only in animal cell. It consists of two granules called centrioles. The function of
centrioles is to help in spindle formation during cell division.

Difference between Plant and Animal cells

Another important distinction in our fundamental unit of life class 9 notes is between the
plant cell and the animal cell. Refer to the table mentioned below to understand it better-

Plant Cells Animal Cells

A rigid cell wall encapsulates the plasma membrane No cell wall present

Larger than animal cells Much smaller than plant cells

Contain plastids Do not contain plastids (except protozoan Eugl

Vacuoles are large and permanent Vacuoles are small and temporary

Do not contain centrosomes and centrioles Do contain centrosomes and centrioles

In single-celled organisms, cell reproduction gives rise to the next generation. In multicellular
organisms, cell division occurs not just to produce a whole new organism but for growth and
replacement of worn-out cells within the organisms.
CELL DIVISION is always highly regulated and follows a highly orchestrated series of
steps. The term cytokinesis refers to the division of a cell in half, while mitosis and meiosis
refer to two different forms of nuclear division.

MITOSIS

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in the formation of two daughter cells
each with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent cell.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in the formation of four daughter cells
each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

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 Mitosis results in two nuclei that are identical to the original nucleus. Meiosis, on the other
hand, results in four nuclei that each has ½ the chromosomes of the original cell. In animals,
meiosis only occurs in the cells that give rise to the sex cells (gametes), i.e., the egg and the
sperm.

Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis

Number of cells created End result: two daughter cells End result: four daughter cells

Ploidy Creates diploid daughter cells Creates haploid daughter cells

Daughter cells are genetically Daughter cells are genetically

Genetics
identical different

REFRENCES
https://www.studyrankers.com/2017/05/notes-of-ch-5-the-fundamental-unit-of-life.html
https://www.selfstudys.com/books/cbse-revisions-notes/english/class-9th/science-revision-
notes/chapter-5-the-fundamental-unit-of-life-revision-notes/121948

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