REVISION BOOKLET

IGCSE PE
Skeletal System

Talus

Functions of the
skeleton

Red and white

Shape and Muscle Protection of
blood cell
support attachment vital organs
production

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Types of joint
 Fixed or immoveable/fibrous joints – e.g. cranium
 Slightly moveable/cartilaginous joints – e.g. vertebrae
 Freely moveable/synovial joints – e.g. ball and socket/hinge

Ball and Hinge Joint

Socket Joint

Joint Structure and Function

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Types of bone:
Tendons – attach muscle to bone, which
 Flat bone
provides leverage
 Long bone
 Short bone Ligaments – attach bone to bone which
strengthens the joints

Types of Movement
Type of Movement Description
Adduction Movement of the limb TOWARDS the centre of
the body
Abduction Movement of the limb AWAY from the midline
body
Flexion Angle of the joint decreases
Extension Angle of the joint increases
Rotation When the bone at a joint moves around its own
axis, so making a circular movement
Dorsi Flexion An upward movement, as in moving the foot to
pull the toes towards the knee in walking.
Plantar Flexion A movement that points the toes downwards by
straightening the ankle.

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 Muscles
Three types of muscle
 Voluntary
 Involuntary
 Cardiac

Hip
flexors

Tibialis
anterior

Antagonistic Muscles
• Muscles can only PULL they cannot push!
• This is called a muscle contraction.
• There are a number of ways a muscle can contract....
• The two we are concerned with are:
• Isotonic
• Isometric

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 Isometric is static. The muscle is contracting but it is in a fixed position. For
example, in an arm wrestle when two people are taking the strain their
muscles are in isometric contractions.

Isotonic is moving (think of tonic the energy drinks = movement). For example,
in an arm wrestle when both people have started to push the other then the
muscle is moving. (concentric – muscle contracts and shortens) (eccentric –
muscle contracts and lengthens).

Antagonistic Muscle Pairs

As muscles can only pull, you have to have sets of muscles that pull in the
opposite directions; these are called antagonistic pairs.

The muscle that is working is

called the AGONIST (it’s easy to
remember if you think of agony –
the muscle is in agony which
means it is working).
The muscle relaxing is the
ANTAGONIST

Muscles Location Movement

Gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior Ankle Plantar flexion and dorsi flexion
Quadriceps and hamstring Knee Flexion and extension
Biceps and triceps Elbow Flexion and extension
Hip flexors and gluteus maximus Hip Flexion and extension

Muscle Fibres
Type 1: Slow Twitch Type 2b: Fast-twitch
They contract slowly with less force and These are also fast-twitch which contract
are slow to get tired and are suited to rapidly and produce large amounts of
aerobic activities such long-distance force but get tired quickly. Are suited to
running and swimming. short distance events (100M)

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The musculoskeletal system

Working together, the joints, bones and skeletal muscles make up the
musculoskeletal system. The main function is to create movement. The
skeletal muscles connect to the bones and work with connective tissues at the
joints to allow for movement. The muscles connect to the nervous system,
which allows movement to start through nerve signals from the brain.

The bones, joints and muscles work together as levers in the body. When you
lift an object your muscles and bones can create a mechanical advantage or
mechanical disadvantage.

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Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system is made up of:
 Blood
 Blood vessels
 Heart

Bicuspid Valve

Functions of the cardiovascular system

• Transport of oxygen and nutrients
• Removal of carbon dioxide
• Clotting of open wounds
• Regulation of body temperature

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Arteries
Arteries carry blood AWAY
from the heart. They
consist of three layers.
Artery walls are thick and
flexible. They have a pulse
and work under high
pressure.

Veins carry deoxygenated back

to the heart and they work at a
lower pressure. The walls are
thinner than arteries and less
elastic. They have valves to
stop the blood flowing
backwards.

Capillaries are the smallest

blood vessel and are just one
cell thick (thinner than a
strand of hair). They have
semi-permeable walls.

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Blood
Red blood cells
 contain haemoglobin which carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
 made in the bone marrow, the more you train the more red blood cells
are made
White blood cells
 an important part of the immune system
 produces antibodies and destroy harmful microorganisms
 made in the bone marrow
Platelets
 clump to form clots (stops bleeding)
Plasma
 fluid part of blood
 carries carbon dioxide, hormones and waste

Definitions
Heart rate: the amount of times the heart beats per minute (bpm)
Stroke volume: the volume of blood ejected from each ventricle per beat
Cardiac output: the amount of blood ejected from the heart each minute

Cardiac Output = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume

CO = HR x SV

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Respiratory System

Inhalation
 In order to draw air into our lungs, the volume of the chest must
increase.
 This occurs because the Intercostal muscles and the diaphragm contract.
 The rib cage moves up and out and the diaphragm flattens to increase
the space.
 This decreases the air pressure within our lungs, causing air to rush in
from outside.

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Exhalation
• At the end of a breath, the intercostal muscles and diaphragm relax,
• Returning to their starting position, which decreases the volume of the
chest.
• The decreased space and increased air pressure in the lungs forces air
out

Gas Inhaled Exhaled

Oxygen 21% 17%
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4%
Nitrogen 79% 79%

Gas Exchange
1. The oxygen we breathe in travels down to the alveoli.
2. Capillaries carry de-oxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery to the
lungs.
3. The alveoli have a HIGH concentration of oxygen and the capillaries have
a LOW concentration of oxygen.
4. Capillaries and alveoli have thin walls so gas exchange takes place from a
HIGH concentration to a LOW concentration.
5. This means oxygen is put into the blood cells & the carbon dioxide is
removed.
6. The oxygen rich blood is then taken back to the heart via the pulmonary
vein where it can be delivered to the rest of the body.

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 Gas Exchange Diagram (diffusion)

Tidal Volume : During normal breathing, the total amount breathed in and out
in one cycle.
Vital Capacity: The maximum you can forcibly breathe in and out.
Residual volume: the volume of air left in your lungs after breathing out.
Minute ventilation: the volume of air, in litres, that you breathe per minute.

The cardiorespiratory system

The cardiovascular and respiratory system work together to supply muscles
with a continuous supply of oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide.

Air is inhaled Air journeys through the Gaseous exchange takes place
respiratory system to the at the alveoli. Oxygen diffuses
alveoli into the blood in the
capillaries
The aorta carries
The oxygenated blood Oxygenated blood is carried
oxygenated blood to the rest
moves through the heart from the lungs to the heart
of the body
before being pumped in the pulmonary vein.
towards the rest of the body
Oxygenated blood moves via the aorta
through the capillaries Gaseous exchange takes
where gaseous exchange place in the alveoli
takes place. The deoxygenated blood
moves through the heart
The veins carry the before being pumped to the Air travels back through the
deoxygenated blood back to lungs via the pulmonary respiratory system and is
the heart. artery exhaled

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Anaerobic and aerobic exercise
The body’s ability to extract energy from food and transfer it to the proteins in
the muscles determines your capacity to exercise for different time periods at
various intensities.
The energy systems can work aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically
(without oxygen).

Anaerobic
 Movements that require sudden bursts of effort are powered by energy
systems that do not require oxygen (anaerobic).
 As a result, the anaerobic system can only work for short periods of
time, 400m maximum.

Glucose lactic acid + Heat

 Lactic acid is what limits the anaerobic system as it builds up in the

muscles causing fatigue

Aerobic
 Movements that are needed over a longer period of time are aerobic
and require oxygen.

GLUCOSE + Oxygen carbon dioxide, water + heat

 Carbon dioxide and water do not affect the ability of the muscles to
contract.
 The glucose comes from foods such as carbohydrates (if you have eaten
more carbohydrates before a big session you should have more energy)

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The short-term effects of exercise

Muscle fatigue usually occurs as a result of anaerobic respiration, when there

is not enough oxygen available your cells respire anaerobically and lactic acid is
produced.
Lactate accumulation is when lactic acid gathers and it causes your muscles to
feel painful and tired.
Heart rate: The Stroke Volume:
Heart rate increases
number of times the amount of
Stroke volume increases the heart beats blood pumped by
per minute the heart per
Cardiac output increases beat.

Depth and rate of breathing increases Cardiac Output: is the amount

of blood pumped by the heart
in one minute.

Cardiac Output = HR x SV

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Long term effects of exercise

Cardiac hypertrophy
Stroke volume increases
Increased number of Increase in tidal
Increased volume
red blood cells strength of Increased vital
Capillarisation intercostal capacity
muscles
Increased blood flow Increase in
Increase in lung number of
to working muscles volume alveoli
osteoporosis, better posture, ligaments and tendons
Increased bone density, less chance of developing

will be stronger and more flexible.

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 Levers
• A lever is a rigid structure that rotates around an axis (bone)
• A fulcrum (pivot) – is the point around which the lever rotates (joint)
• A resistance – the force that is applied by the lever system (thing you are trying to
move)
• An effort – the force that is applied by the user of the lever system (muscle)

First Class Lever

The main example of this action in the

body is a triceps dip.
The elbow joint is the fulcrum as it lies
Resistance
between the resistance (weight held in
the hand) and the effort applied by the
triceps muscle

Second Class Lever

A calf raise is an example of a second
class lever.
The body weight (resistance) sits
between the toes and balls of the feet
(fulcrum) and the call muscles apply
the effort by pulling on the heel.

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 Most of the levers in your body are
Third Class Lever third class levers because the effort is
applied between the fulcrum and the
load.
A biceps curl – the effort is applied by
the biceps muscle, which is between
Resistance
the fulcrum at the elbow joint and the
weight in your hands (resistance).
The effort is always greater than the
load as the resistance is further from
the fulcrum than the effort.

A way to remember…

1 – 2 – 3, F – R - E

A class 1 lever has the Fulcrum at the centre

A class 2 lever has the Resistance at the centre
A class 3 level has the Effort at the centre

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Force
• Gravity: the force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth,
or towards any other physical body having mass
• Muscular force: a push or pull applied to an object, provided by
muscular contraction
• Air resistance: the frictional force that air applies against a moving
object

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Biomechanics

Force: a push or pulling Inertia: the resistance of

action applied upon an an object to any change
object (measured in in its state of motion
Newtons, or N for short) (current state of motion)

Examples of forces in sport

• Power lifters completing many repetitions of the log lift
• A rugby player making a tackle
• A sprinter pushing out of the blocks at the start of a race

Force (N) = mass (in kg) x acceleration (a)

Or F = ma
• Every object is made up of matter and its mass is how heavy the object
is without gravity. The more matter an object has, the more it weighs,
and the bigger the mass, the harder it is to move.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

• ‘An object in motion stays in motion at the same speed and in the same
direction, and an object at rest stays at rest unless acted upon by an
external force’.
• The performer will remain still or move in constant motion/velocity
unless another force is applied.
• Force is applied by the muscles

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For example, a football will stay at rest on the penalty spot until it is acted on
by an external force, such as a player kicking it. However, after it has been
kicked, the football will continue to travel at the same speed towards the goal
until it is acted upon by another external force, which could be:
• The goalkeeper saving it
• The net stopping it
• The bar causing it to change direction
• Gravity and air resistance acting as greater forces on the ball, causing it
to slow down and eventually come to rest on the ground

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

• ‘An object will accelerate when acted upon by an external force. The
acceleration of the object is proportional to this force and is in the
direction by which the force acts’.
• Acceleration can be positive – the object gets quicker, or negative – the
object gets slower

• Mass: the quantity of matter in a body regardless of its volume or of any

forces acting on it.
• Acceleration: the rate at which an object changes speed

For example, a shuttle in badminton will accelerate when hit by the racquet.
The speed at which accelerates is proportionate to the force the performer has
used to hit the shuttle.
The shuttle will reach a maximum speed and then begin to decelerate as air
resistance and gravity apply forces to slow it down.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

• ‘For every action there exists an equal and opposite reaction’

For example, if a hockey player collides with an opponent. The hockey player
will exert a force on the opponent, and the opponent will exert a force of equal
and opposite force back. This will decelerate the opponent and potentially
accelerate them in the opposite direction.

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 Psychology

• Motivation – the desire required to be successful; a SMARTER Targets

driving force that makes you do something and
S – Specific
decide how much effort to put in.
M – Measurable
A – Agreed
Motivation can be seen by:
R – Realistic
• The amount of effort we put into a task
T – Time-phased
• How well we direct and focus our effort
E – Exciting
• How long we stick at a task, especially one that is
difficult R – Recorded

• What we are willing to give up and sacrifice for

success

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Skill

Ability – the qualities

and characteristics a Skill– a learned and
person is born with, such practised ability that
as speed, agility, brings about the result
coordination, flexibility, that you want to achieve
balance, reaction time, with maximum certainty
that allow a person to and efficiency
learn or acquire skills.

 Accurate
 Consistent
 Fluent
 Coordinated
 Aesthetically pleasing
 Goal directed

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Skill Acquisition

Complex skills –
Basic Skills – simple more difficult
skills such as skills that require
throwing, catching, a higher level of
hitting a ball and coordination and
running concentration

Closed skills – skills Open skills – skill that

that are not are affected by the
affected by the environment; the
environment or performer has to react
the performers and adjust to the
within it situation and this will
constantly change

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Fine and Gross Skills

 Fine skills – precise movements that require high levels of accuracy and
technique; they are often small movements that require small groups of
muscles such as in the fingers (archery, backhand topspin in table tennis)
 Gross skills – movements that use large muscle groups to produce big,
powerful movements; gross skills are usually performed by the arms and
legs (running, jumping, throwing)

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Stages of learning

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Feedback
 Extrinsic feedback – information from an external source, e.g.
teacher/coach
 Intrinsic feedback – information that comes from within, to do with
emotions, thoughts and muscles.
 Knowledge of results – times or place in a race
 Knowledge of performance – landing a clean vault

Guidance
 Visual
 Verbal
 Manual
 Mechanical

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Physical Training
 Health – a state of complete mental, physical and social wellbeing, and
not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.
 Fitness – the ability to meet the demands of the environment

Components of Fitness Definition

Cardiovascular Fitness Your ability to exercise your whole
body for long periods of time
Muscular strength Your ability to exert force, such as
when you lift a weight
Muscular endurance Your ability to use voluntary muscles
repeatedly without getting tired
Flexibility The range of motion of your joints or
the ability of your joints to move
freely
Power The ability to undertake strength
performances quickly
Speed The rate at which an individual can
perform a movement or cover a
distance
Agility The ability to change position and
control of the body at speed
Balance Being able to keep the body stable, at
rest or when on the move
Coordination The ability to use two or more body
parts together
Reaction time The time between the presentation
of a stimulus and the onset of
movement

VO2 max – the volume of oxygen that can be consumed while exercise at a
maximum capacity

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 Fitness Test Component of Fitness
12-minute cooper run Cardiovascular fitness
Multistage Fitness Test Cardiovascular fitness
Grip dynamometer test Strength
One-rep max test Strength
Multi-stage abdominal curl Muscular endurance
conditioning test
30 meter sprint Speed
Vertical jump test Power
Sit and reach test Flexibility
Illinois agility test Agility
Standing stork test Balance
Anderson wall toss test Coordination
Ruler drop test Reaction time

Principles of Training
 Specificity Methods of training
 Progression Continuous
 Overload
 Reversibility Circuit
 Tedium Fartlek
Plyometrics
 Frequency
 Intensity HIIT
 Time Weight/resistance
 Type

Training Zones High altitude training

220 – age = HRmax Increase in red blood cells

60% - 80% of HRmax = aerobic threshold Advantages to endurance events

80% - 90% of HRmax = anaerobic threshold Disadvantages –hard to train at

altitude

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Nutrition
• A balanced diet includes 7 components: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
minerals, vitamins, fibre and water.

Name of nutrient Food Source Function

Carbohydrates Potato, pasta , rice, Provides the body’s
bread main source of energy
(55%)
Fats Red meats, butter, Highly concentrated
cooking oils, cheese source of energy stored
in body for later use
(30%)
Proteins Chicken, fish, dairy Helps body cells grow
products and repair. Helps
muscle growth and
repair
Water Drinks Transport nutrients to
cells and removes waste
products. Helps
maintain body
temperature.

Energy Balance

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Social and Cultural influences

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 Rest
Ice
Compress
Elevate

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Performance Enhancing Drugs
Beta Blockers – Lower heart rate and blood
pressure so reduces anxiety.
Side effects – nausea, diarrhoea, tiredness,
depression, insomnia and nightmares,
(Archery, shooting)
Anabolic Steroids – mimic male testosterone and
promote bone and muscle growth. They increase
strength and allow a quicker recovery time.
Side effects – increased risk of heart attack and strokes, high blood pressure, liver disease,
increased risk of muscle injury, infertility in women and death.
(Sprinters, weight lifters)
Diuretics – increase the amount of urine produced – can help lose weight and mask other
drugs.
Side effects – dehydration, dizziness, muscle cramps, headaches, nausea, kidney damage.
(Jockey, boxer)
Stimulants – such as cocaine and amphetamines increase physical and mental alertness.
Can reduce pain.
Side effects – insomnia, irritability, irregular heartbeat, addiction
(Athletics, swimming)
Peptide Hormones (EPO) – increases production of red blood cells and therefore more
oxygenated blood to working muscles.
Side effects – thickens blood can cause clots, heart attack, stroke.
(Long distance running/cycling/swimming)
Blood doping – banned process (not drug) where athletes increase the amount of red blood
cells in the body so more oxygenated blood can be delivered to working muscles)
(Long distance running/cycling)

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