VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELAGAVI

MATHEMATICS HANDBOOK
I and II Semester BE Program
Effective from the academic year 2022-2023
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MATHEMATICS HANDBOOK

Derivatives of some standard functions:

d
dx
c  0
dx
 
d n
x  n x n 1

dx
 
d x
e  ex
dx
 
d x
a  a x log a

d d
 sin x   cos x  cos x    sin x
dx dx

d d
 tan x   sec2 x  cot x    cos ec 2 x
dx dx

d d
 sec x   sec x tan x  cos ecx    cos ecx cot x
dx dx

d 1 d log e
 log x    log a x   a
dx x dx x

1
d

sin 1 x  1 d

cos 1 x 
dx 1  x2 dx 1  x2

1
d
dx

tan 1 x  1
1  x2
d
dx

cot 1 x 1  x2

d d
 sinh x   cosh x  cosh x   sinh x
dx dx

d d
 tanh x   sec h2 x  coth x    cos ech2 x
dx dx

d d
 sec hx    sec hx tanh x  cos echx    cos echx coth x
dx dx

Rules of Differentiation:
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
d d
d d d d u
v u   u v 
 uv   u  v   v  u   
dx dx
dx dx dx dx  v  v2

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Parametric differentiation:
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 ( )
𝑑𝑡
If 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) & 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ( )
𝑑𝑡
Chain Rule:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) & 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) then =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Integrals of some standard functions:
(Constant of Integration C to be added in all the integrals)
x n 1 1
 x dx  n  1  xdx  log x
n

 log xdx  x log x  x, x  0  kdx  k x

ax
 e dx  e  a dx 
x x x

log a
 sin x dx   cos x  cos x dx  sin x
 tan x dx  log  sec x   cot x dx  log  sin x 
 sec x dx  log  sec x  tan x   cos ecx dx  log  cos ecx  cot x 
 sec x dx  tan x  cos ec x dx   cot x
2 2

 sec x tan x dx  sec x  cos ecx cot x dx   cos ecx

 sinh x dx  cosh x  cosh x dx  sinh x

 tanh x dx  log  cosh x   coth x dx  log  sinh x 

 sec h x dx  tanh x  cos ech x dx   coth x

2 2

1 1
dx  tan 1  x a 
1
a  dx  sin 1  x a 
2
x 2
a a x
2 2

f '
 x f '  x
 f  x  dx  log  f  x    f  x
dx  2 f  x 

eax
 e cos bx dx 
ax
 a cos bx  b sin bx 
a 2  b2

eax
 e sin bx dx 
ax
 a sin bx  b cos bx 
a 2  b2
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a a b a

 f  x  dx   f  a  x  dx  f  x  dx    f  x  dx
0 0 a b

 a
2 f  x  dx f  x  is even function
f  x  dx   0
a
if

a  0 if f  x  is odd function

𝑎
2𝑎
2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = {
0
0
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Integration by parts:

 u  x  v  x  dx  u  x    v  x  dx    u  x    v  x  dx  dx
d
dx

Bernoulli’s rule of integration:

If the 1st function is a polynomial and integration of 2nd function is known. Then
∫ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢′ ∬ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢" ∭ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢′′′ ∬ ∬ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥
+ ⋯⋯⋯⋯
Where dashes denote the differentiation of u .
Or
∫ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣1 − 𝑢′ ∙ 𝑣2 + 𝑢′′ ∙ 𝑣3 − 𝑢′′′ ∙ 𝑣4 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
Where dashes denote the differentiation of u , vk denotes the integration of v, k times with respect
to x.
Vector calculus formulae:

Position vector r  x iˆ  y ˆj  z kˆ

Magnitude r  x2  y 2  z 2

Dot product of unit vectors iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1 and iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  iˆ  0

Cross product of unit vectors iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0 and iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, ˆj  kˆ  iˆ, iˆ  kˆ   ˆj

A. B
Angle between two vectors cos  
A B
A
Unit vector Aˆ 
A

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MATHEMATICS HANDBOOK
 ds
Velocity V
dt
 d 2s
Acceleration a 2
dt

For any vectors 𝐴⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑏1 𝑗 + 𝑐1 𝑘), 𝐵

⃗⃗ = (𝑎2 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑐2 𝑘) & 𝐶⃗ = (𝑎3 𝑖 + 𝑏3 𝑗 + 𝑐3 𝑘)
 
Dot product of two vectors A  B  a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
Cross product of two vectors A  B  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
a1 a2 a3

      
Scalar triple product A  B C    A  B   C  b1 b2 b3
   
c1 c2 c3
Trigonometric formulae:

 Identities
sin 2   cos 2   1
1  tan 2   sec2 
1  cot 2   cos e c 2 
 Compound angle formulae
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B
cos  A  B   cos A cos B  sin A sin B
cos  A  B   cos A cos B  sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
tan  A  B  
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
tan  A  B  
1  tan A tan B
 Transformation formulae
1 1
sin A cos B  sin  A  B   sin  A  B   , cos A sin B  sin  A  B   sin  A  B  
2 2
1 1
cos A cos B  cos  A  B   cos  A  B   , sin A sin B  cos  A  B   cos  A  B  
2 2
CD CD , CD CD
sin C  sin D  2sin   cos   sin C  sin D  2sin   cos  
 2   2   2   2 
CD CD , CD CD
cos C  cos D  2 cos   cos   cos C  cos D  2sin   sin  
 2   2   2   2 

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 Multiple angle formulae

sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A sin A  2sin  A 2  cos  A 2 
cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A cos A  cos 2  A 2   sin 2  A 2 

sin 2 A 
1  cos 2  cos 2 A 
1  cos 2 
2 2
1 1
sin 3 A  3sin A  sin 3 A cos3 A  3cos A  cos 3 A
4 4

Hyperbolic and Euler’s formulae

e x  e x e x  e x
sinh x  cosh x 
2 2
cosh 2   sinh 2   1

ei  cos   i sin 

eix  e ix eix  e ix
sin x  cos x 
2i 2

Logarithmic formulae:
 A
log e  A B   log e  A   log e  B  log e    log e  A   log e  B 
B
log e B
log e x n  n log e x log a B 
log e a
log a a  1 log a 1  0
log e 0  

Solid geometry formulae:

 x2  x1    y2  y1    z2  z1 
2 2 2
Distance between two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is
Direction cosines l  cos  , m  cos  , n  cos 
a b c
Direction ratios l  , m , n .
a 2  b2  c 2 a 2  b2  c 2 a 2  b2  c 2
Direction ratios of a line joining two points (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

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nth Derivatives of standard functions

D n  ax  b    m  m  1 m  2  ......  m  n  1 ax  b  .a n

m mn

 
D n  ax  b    n !a n
n

 
Dn  xn   n!

 1   1 n !a
n n
n
D   
 ax  b   ax  b 
n 1

 1  n  1!a n .
n 1

D log  ax  b   
n

 ax  b 
n

D n  a mx   a mx  m log a 
n

 
D n eax  a n e ax

D n sin  ax  b    a n sin  ax  b  n. / 2 

D n cos  ax  b    a n cos  ax  b  n. / 2 


D n eax sin  bx  c    a 2  b 2    a 
n2
eax sin bx  c  n tan 1 b


D n eax cos  bx  c    a 2  b 2  cos  bx  c  n tan  b  
n2
1
eax
a

Polar coordinates and polar curves:

Angle between radius vector and tangent
d 1 dr
tan   r or cot  
dr r d
Angle of intersection of the curves
 tan 1  tan 2 
1  2  tan 1  
 1  tan 1 tan 2 

Orthogonal condition 1  2  or tan 1  tan 2  1,
2
Pedal equation or p-r equation

P  r sin 
1 1 2
1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= (1 + cot ∅) = (1 + ( ) )
𝑝2 𝑟 2 𝑟2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃

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Derivative of arc length:

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2
In Cartesian: = √1 + ( ) & = √1 + ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑠 1 𝑑𝛳 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟 2
In Polar: = √1 + ( ) & = √𝑟 2 + ( )
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝛳

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 2
In Parametric: = √( ) + ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝛳 𝑑𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟 & 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑟
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Radius of curvature
3
(1+𝑦1 2 )2
In Cartesian form: 𝜌 =
𝑦2
3
(𝑥̇ 2 +𝑦̇ 2 )2
In parametric form: 𝜌 = 𝑥̇ 𝑦̈−𝑦̇ 𝑥̈
3
(𝑟 2 +𝑟1 2 )2
In polar from: 𝜌 = 𝑟 2 −𝑟𝑟 2
1 +2𝑟1
𝑑𝑟
Pedal Equation: 𝜌 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑝

Indeterminate Forms - L’Hospital’s rule:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
If 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎) = 0 , then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
If 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎) = ∞ , then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1 𝑛 1
lim (1 + 𝑛) = 𝑒 , lim (1 + 𝑛)𝑛 = 𝑒
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→0

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎 𝑛
lim =1 , lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

Series Expansion:
Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  a.

 x  a  y'  x  a  x  a
2 3

y  x  y a  a  y a

''
 y '''  a   ..
1! 2! 3!

Maclaurin’s Series at the point x  0

x ' x2 x3 x4
y  x   y  0  y  0   y ''  0   y '''  0   y ''''  0   ....
1! 2! 3! 4!
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Euler’s theorem on homogeneous function and Corollary:

u u
x y n u (Theorem)
x y
u u f (u )
x y n ' (Corollary 1)
x y f (u )
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑢 (Corollary 2)

Composite function:
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑦
If z  f  x, y  and x    t  , y    t  then = +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡

If z  f  x, y  and x    u , v  , y    u , v 

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
= + & = +
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣

If u  f  r , s, t  and r    x, y, z  , s    x, y, z  , t    x, y, z 

u u r u s u t
  
x r x s x t x
u u r u s u t
  
y r y s y t y

u u r u s u t
  
z r z s z t z

Jacobians:

u u u
u u x y z
  u , v  x y   u , v, w  v v v
J  and 
  x, y  v v   x, y , z  x y z
x y w w w
x y z

Multiple Integrals:

Area A=  dx dy - Cartesian form

A

Area A=  rdrd -Polar form

A

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Volume V=  dx dydz - Cartesian form

V

Volume V=  zdx dy - by double integral

A

 
Gamma function:   n   e x 
x
dx  2 e t t 2 n 1dt
n 1 2

0 0

1 2
Beta function:   m, n    x n 1 1  x 
m 1
dx  2  sin 2 n 1  cos 2 m 1 d
0 0

  m   n
Beta and Gamma relation:   m, n  
  m  n
and  1  2  

Vector Calculus:

 dr
Velocity v (t ) 
dt
 
 d v d2 r
Acceleration a (t )   .
dt dt 2
 
dr dr
The unit tangent vector Tˆ 
dt dt
 
T 1 .T 2
Angle between the tangents cos    
T1 T 2

Component of velocity C.V  v . nˆ , Where n̂ is the unit vector

Component of accelerations C. A  a . nˆ
  
Tangential component of acceleration T .C. A  a . v v


 

Normal component of acceleration N .C. A  a   tangential component    v v
 
Gradient of 
 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
grad  =   i j k
x z z
Unit vector normal to the surface

n̂ 

Directional Derivative: D. D   . nˆ
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Angle between the surfaces

1 .2
cos  
1 2

Divergence of vector field F  f1i  f 2 j  f 3k
 f1 f 2 f3
. F  divF   
x z z

Curl of vector field F
iˆ ˆj kˆ
    
  F  curl F 
x y z
f1 f2 f3
Solenoidal vector field
 
div F    F  0
Irrotational vector field
 
Curl F    F  0 .
List of vector identities
curl ( grad )      0.

 

div (curl F )       F   0.
 

 
 
div ( F )    div F   grad  F
 

 
 
curl ( F )    curl F   grad  F
 
Reduction formulae

  n  1 n  3 n  5  .........1 

 when n is even
 n  n  2  n  4  ..............2 2
 /2  /2

 cos xdx   sin xdx  

n n

0 0   n  1 n  3 n  5  .........3 1 when n is odd

 n  n  2  n  4  ................1


  m  1 m  3 .........  n  1 n  3 ......... 

 when m and n is even
  m  n  m  n  2  m  n  4  .............2
 /2 2
 sin x cos xdx  
m n

0   m  1 m  3 .........  n  1 n  3 ......... other cases

  m  n  m  n  2  m  n  4  ..............


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Differential Equations:
Differential Equations Solution/ substitution
dy
Linear in y  Py  Q y ( I .F )   Q( I .F )dx  C
dx
dx
Linear in x  Px  Q x  I .F    Q  I .F .dy  C
dy
dy
Bernoulli’s  P y  Q yn divide by y n and Put y1 n  z
dx
Exact differential equation
Mdx  Ndy  0 with
M N
 .

y constant
M dx    terms of N not containing x  dy  C
y x
Not exact differential equation 1
I .F .  , Mx  Ny  0
Case 1 : If Mdx  Ndy  0 and Mx  Ny
Mdx  Ndy  0
Case 2 : If the differential equation is of 1
I .F .  with Mx  Ny  0
the form yg1  xy  dx  xg 2  xy  dy  0 Mx  Ny
1  M N 
I .F .  e  or e 
f  x  dx
Case 3: If     f ( x) or C
Cdx

N  y x 
1  N M 
I .F .  e  or e 
f  y  dy
Case 4 : If     f ( y ) or C
Cdy

M  x y 
Case 5 : If the differential equation is of I .F .  x h y k With
the form
x n y n  mydx  nxdy   x p y q  m' ydx  n' xdy   0
' '

p  h 1 q  k 1 p'  h  1 q'  k  1
 and 
m n m' n'
Newton’s law of cooling T  To  C1e  k t

Linear Algebra:
Inverse of a square matrix A
A1 
 adj A .
A
Rank of a Matrix A
The number of non-zero rows in the echelon form of A is equal to rank of A
Normal Form of a Matrix.

Ir 0 
0 0 
 

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Gauss-Elimination Method
The system is reduced to upper triangular system from which the unknowns are found by
back substitutions.

Gauss-Jordan Method
The system is reduced to diagonal system from which the unknowns are found by back
substitutions.

Eigenvalues
Roots of the characteristic equation A   I  0

Eigen Vectors
Non-zero solution x  xi of A   I x  0

Diagonal form
1 0 0 
D  P AP   0 2 0 
1

 0 0 3 
Computation of power of a square matrix A
A n  P D n P 1
Canonical Form
V  1 y 2  2 y 2  3 y 2  .......  n y 2
1 2 3 n

Nature, Rank and Index of Quadratic forms:

 positive-definite if all the eigenvalues of A are positive.
 positive-semi definite if all the eigenvalues of A are non-negative and at least one of the
eigenvalues is zero.
 negative-definite if all the eigenvalues of A are negative.
 negative-semi definite if all the eigenvalues of A are negative and at least one of the
eigenvalues is zero.
 indefinite if the matrix A has both positive and negative eigenvalues.
 Rank the number of non-zero terms
 Index the number of positive terms
 Signature the number of positive terms minus the number of negative terms

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Laplace Transforms:
Laplace Transform of Standard Functions

L 1 
1  
L tn 
n!
s n 1
, n  1, 2,3.......
s
Where n is a positive integer

 
L e at 
1
sa
 
L e at 
1
sa

a s
L sin at  L cos at 
s  a2
2
s  a2
2

a s
L sinh at  L cosh at 
s  a2
2
s  a2
2

e as
L u  t   L u  t  a  
1
s s

Properties of the Laplace transform:

𝑓(𝑡) 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠)

Translation
L e at f  t   F  s  a 
(first Shifting Theorem)

dn
L t f  t    1 n F  s 
n n
Multiplication by t
ds

1 s
Time scale L  f  at   F  
a a



t

 1
Integration L   f  t  d   L  f  t 

0 
 s

 f t   
Division by t L    F  s  ds.
 t  s

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Transform of a Periodic Function: If f (t) is periodic with a period T , then

T
L  f  t  
1
 sT 
e st f  t  dt .
1  e  0
Second Shifting Theorem:

 
If F  s   L f  t  and a  0, then L  f  t  a  u  t  a   e  as L  f  t  .

Transforms of the derivatives:

𝐿{𝑓 ′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑓(0)

𝐿{𝑓′′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠 2 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠 𝑓(0) − 𝑓′(0)

𝐿{𝑓 𝑛 (𝑡)} = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 ′ (0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓"(0) − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ − 𝑓 𝑛−1 (0)

Inverse Laplace Transform:

Transform Inverse Transform

F ( s )  L f (t ) f (t )  L1 F ( s)

 
L tn 
n!
s n 1
t n 1  1 
 L1  n 
 n  1!  s 
Where n is a positive integer Where n is a positive integer

 1 
 
L e at 
1
eat  L1  
sa s  a

a  a 
L sinh at  sinh at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2

s  s 
L cosh at  cosh at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2

a  a 
L sin at  sin at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2

s  s 
L cos at  cos at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2

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Formulae on Shifting rule:

𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡
(𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2 (𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡
(𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2 (𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 −1
𝐿 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡
+𝑏2 +𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 𝐿−1 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏
+𝑏2 +𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡
(𝑠−𝑎)2 −𝑏2 (𝑠−𝑎)2 −𝑏2
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠−𝑎)2 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−𝑎)2 2 ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡
−𝑏2 −𝑏
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 −1
𝐿 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡
−𝑏2 −𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 𝐿−1 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡
−𝑏2 −𝑏2

Convolution Theorem:
Let f  t  and g  t  be piecewise continuous on  0,   and F  s   L  f  t  & G  s   L  g  t  .
t
Then, L1 F  s  G  s    f  u g  t  u  du.
0

Numerical Methods:
𝑥𝑘+1 −𝑥𝑘
Regula Falsi formula: 𝑥𝑘+2 = 𝑥𝑘 − for k = 0,1,2,………
𝑓(𝑥𝑘+1 )−𝑓(𝑥𝑘 )
Newton-Raphson formula:
𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − for n = 1, 2, 3, ……..
𝑓′(𝑥𝑛 )

Newton’s Forward Interpolation formula:

𝑝(𝑝−1) 𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2)
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
2! 3!
𝑥−𝑥0
Where 𝑝 =
ℎ

Newton’s Backward Interpolation formula:

𝑝(𝑝 + 1) 2 𝑝(𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 + 2) 3
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∇𝑦0 + ∇ 𝑦0 + ∇ 𝑦0 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
2! 3!
𝑥−𝑥𝑛
Where 𝑝 =
ℎ
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Newton’s General Interpolation formula (Divided difference formula):

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ] + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ]

+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ] + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 ]

Lagrange’s Interpolation formula:

(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥0 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 0
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
+ 𝑦
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
+ 𝑦
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 2
+⋯⋯⋯⋯
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
+ 𝑦
(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥2 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛−1 ) 𝑛
Numerical Integration:
Trapezoidal Rule:
𝑥0 +𝑛ℎ
ℎ
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 2(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 )]
2 0
𝑥0

Simpson’s (1/3)rd rule:

𝑥0 +𝑛ℎ
ℎ
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−2 )]
3 0
𝑥0

Simpson’s (3/8)th rule:

𝑥0 +𝑛ℎ

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥0
3ℎ
= [(𝑦0 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦5 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 )
8
+ 2(𝑦3 + 𝑦6 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−3 )]

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Numerical methods for ODE’s:

Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  x0 .

 x  x0  y '  x  x0   x  x0 
2 3

y  x   y  x0    x0   y  x0 
''
 y '''  x0   ..
1! 2! 3!

Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  0

x ' x2 x3 x4
y  x   y  0  y  0   y ''  0   y '''  0   y ''''  0   .... Euler’s Method:
1! 2! 3! 4!

y nE1  y n  hf ( x n , y n ), n  0,1,2,3, 

Modified Euler’s Method:

h
yn 1  yn   f ( xn , yn )  f ( xn 1 , ynE1 )  , n  0,1, 2,3,
2

Runge–Kutta Method
 h k 
Step1: Find k1  hf ( x n , y n ) ; k 2  hf  xn  , y n  1 
 2 2
 h k 
k 3  hf  x n  , y n  2  ; k 4  hf x n  h, y n  k 3 
 2 2

Step2: Find y n 1  y n  k1  2k 2  2k 3  k 4 

1
6
Milne’s Method:

Step1: Find f1  f ( x1 , y1 ), f 2  f ( x 2 , y 2 ) and f 3  f ( x3 , y 3 ) .

Step2: Predictor Formula y 4( P )  y 0 

4h
2 f1  f 2  2 f 3 
3

Step3: Compute f 4  f ( x 4 , y 4( P ) )

Step4: Corrector Formula y4c  y2 

h
3

f 2  4 f1  f 4P 

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Adams – Bashforth Method:

Step1: Find f 0  f  x0 , y0  , f1  f ( x1 , y1 ), f 2  f ( x 2 , y 2 ) and f 3  f ( x3 , y 3 ) .

h
Step2: Predictor Formula y4P  y3   55 f3  59 f 2  37 f1  9 f0 
24

Step3: Compute f 4  f ( x 4 , y 4( P ) )

Step4: : Corrector Formula y4c  y3 

h
24

f1  5 f 2  19 f1  9 f 4P 
Modular Arithmetics:
Set of Natural Numbers (N): {1, 2, 3, …..}

Set of Integers (I) = set of natural, negative naturals and zero: 𝑵 ∪ −𝑵 ∪ {𝟎}

Greatest common divisor: 𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃)

Relative Primes: 𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝟏

Division Algorithm: For integers a and b, with a > 0, there exist integers q and r

such that 𝒃 = 𝒒 ∙ 𝒂 + 𝒓 and 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒂, where q: quotient, r: remainder

6. Euclidean Algorithm

b a b = q1 a + r1 r 1 = b – a q1
a r1 a = q2r1 + r2 r2 = a - q2r1
g = d∙ gcd (a, b) = ax + by with x and y integers

7. Modular and modular class: 𝒎/(𝒂 − 𝒃) then 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝟎 ≤ |𝒃| < 𝒎

𝒃 ≡ 𝒂(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝟎 ≤ |𝒂| < 𝒎

If 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) then 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒌 ∙ 𝒎

8. Properties of modular arithmetic:

 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then for any 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
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 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then for any 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)

 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then for any 𝑐, 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 If 𝑎𝑐 ≡ (𝑏𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = gcd(𝑚, 𝑐), then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚/𝑑)

 If 𝒂𝒄 ≡ (𝒃𝒄)(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) and m is a prime number, then 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎)

 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ± 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 ± 𝑑)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)

 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑑)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)

 If 𝒂𝒄 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 ≡ 𝒅(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝒂𝒃 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎)

 If 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒏 ≡ 𝒃𝒏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎)

 If 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒎, 𝒏) = 𝟏, 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒏), then 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒏)

 If 𝒂𝒃 ≡ 𝟏(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒏), 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂

Linear Diophantine equation:

𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄, 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃) 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒇 𝒅/𝒄

(i) has d congruent solutions and if x0 and y0 are primitive solutions,
𝒃
then 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + (𝒅) 𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 + (𝒂/𝒅)𝒕, for positive integer t

(ii) if d = 1 then it has unique solution

Remainder theorem:

𝒙 ≡ 𝒂𝒊 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒊 ), 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 (𝒎𝒊 , 𝒎𝒋 ) = 𝟏, 𝒊 ≠ 𝒋

Procedure to apply remainder theorem

If 𝒎𝒊 , 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 are relatively prime

Then the solution of 𝒙𝒊 ≡ 𝒃𝒊 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒊 ), 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 3 is 𝒙 = ∑𝟑𝟏 𝒃𝒊 𝑴𝒊 𝒚𝒊

where, Mi = M / mi with 𝑴 = ∏𝟑𝟏 𝒎𝒊

Mi𝒚𝒊 ≡ 𝟏(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒊 ) where 𝒚𝒊 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 Mi under mod mi

11. Fermat’s little theorem:

If p is any prime and p ∤a, then 𝒂𝒑−𝟏 ≡ 1 (mod p) or 𝒂𝒑 ≡ a (mod p)
12. Euler’s Φ function:
If n is any composite number with prime factorization n = 𝒑𝟏 𝒎𝟏 X 𝒑𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝑿 … ;
then number of primes up to n is
𝟏 𝟏
𝚽(𝒏) = 𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝒑 ) (𝟏 − 𝒑 ) ⋯ ⋯
𝟏 𝟐

13. Wilson’s theorem: Prime p divides (p − 1)! + 1

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14. RSA cryptosystem:

If p and q are large prime numbers and a is any integer then,
plain text M is encrypted to c by, 𝒄 ≡ 𝑴𝒆 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝒒)
The public key will be = (pq, e)
d the decryption key the inverse of e, then 𝒅 ∙ 𝒆 ≡ 𝟏(𝒎𝒐𝒅(𝒑 − 𝟏)(𝒒 − 𝟏))
then 𝑴 ≡ 𝒄𝒅 (𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒑𝒒).

Curvilinear Coordinates:
Curvilinear coordinates are often used to define the location or distribution of physical quantities
which may be scalars, vectors or tensors.
̂ , then
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒙(𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘)𝒊̂ + 𝒚(𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘)𝒋̂ + 𝒛(𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘)𝒌
If 𝑹
⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹
(i) Tangent vectors to the u-curve, the v-curve and the w-curve are 𝝏𝒖 , 𝝏𝒗 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝏𝒘
respectively
⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹
(ii) Scale factors 𝒉𝟏 = |𝝏𝒖| , 𝒉𝟐 = |𝝏𝒗 | 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝟑 = |𝝏𝒘|
(iii) Unit Tangent Vectors to the u-curve, the v-curve and the w-curve are
⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑅
( ) ( ) ( )
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝑇𝑢 = , 𝑇𝑣 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑤 = , respectively.
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3

Normal to the surfaces 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟎 , 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝒘𝟎 are

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇𝑤
∇𝑢 = ℎ𝑢 , ∇v = ℎ𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇w = respectively
1 2 ℎ3

Unit normal vectors to the surfaces 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟎 , 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝒘𝟎 are

∇𝑢 ∇v ∇w
𝑁𝑢 = |∇𝑢| , 𝑁𝑣 = |∇v| and 𝑁𝑤 = |∇w| , respectively

Polar Coordinates (𝒓, 𝜽) :

Coordinate transformations: 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
Jacobian: =𝑟
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃)

(𝐴𝑟𝑐 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)2 : (𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝑟)2 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃)2

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Cylindrical Coordinates (𝝆, 𝝋, 𝒛):

Coordinate transformations: 𝑥 = 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑, 𝑦 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑, 𝑧 = 𝑧

𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
Jacobian: =𝜌
𝜕(𝜌,𝜑,𝑧)

(𝐴𝑟𝑐 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)2 : (𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝜌)2 + 𝜌2 (𝑑𝜑)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2

Volume element: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑧

Spherical Polar Coordinates (𝒓, 𝜽, 𝝋) :

Coordinate transformations: 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 , 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
Jacobian: = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃,𝜑)

(𝐴𝑟𝑐 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)2 : (𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝑟)2 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃)2 + (𝑟 sin 𝜃)2 (𝑑𝜑)2

Volume element: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑

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