FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH AND

STATISTICAL METHODOLOGY
SAMPLING – Basic Concepts and Techniques

OCTOBER 7, 2019
PARIDHI JALAN
Roll Number - 1910137
Contents
MEANING AND TYPES OF SAMPLING.....................................................................................................2
NEED FOR SAMPLING............................................................................................................................5
METHODS OF DRAWING RANDOM SAMPLES........................................................................................5
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE.....................................................................................................................6
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE..............................................................................................................6
AREA (OR CLUSTER) SAMPLING.............................................................................................................8
QUOTA SAMPING..................................................................................................................................8
PURPOSIVE OR JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING...........................................................................................8
ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING........................................................................................................................9
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING........................................................................................................................9
SNOWBALL SAMPLING..........................................................................................................................9
SATURATION SAMPLING AND DENSE SAMPLING................................................................................10
DOUBLE SAMPLING.............................................................................................................................10
MEANING AND TYPES OF SAMPLING

Nearly all researches—experimental and nonexperimental—in the behavioural sciences, particularly

in the fields of psychology, sociology and education--draw some inferences' regarding a well-
specified and identifiable group on the basis of some selected measure. The well-specified and
identifiable group is known as a population or universe and the selected number of persons or
objects is known as a sample. The generalized conclusions are technically known as the statistical
inferences. A population, therefore, may be defined as any identifiable and well-specified group of
individuals. All primary school teachers, all college teachers, all university students, all housewives,
etc., are examples of populations. A population may be finite or infinite—a finite population is one
where all the members can be easily counted; an infinite population is one whose size is unlimited
and therefore, it’s members cannot be counted. the population of university teachers is an example
of a finite population and the population fishes in a river is an example of an infinite population
because the former can be counted whereas the latter cannot be counted.

Likewise, a population may be real or imaginative--a real population is one which actually exists and
an imaginative population is one which exists only in the imagination. In psychological, and
educational research, on many occasions, the population is imaginative. A measure based upon the
entire population is called a parameter. A sample is any number of persons selected to represent the
population according to some rule or plan. Thus, a sample is a smaller representation of the
population. A measure based upon sample is known as a statistic.

Basic Terms of Sampling

• The identification and selection of elements that will make up the sample is at the heart of all
sampling techniques; the sample is chosen from the sampling frame, or list of all members of the
population of interest.

• Researchers are not interested simply in the responses of those surveyed; instead, they seek to
describe the larger population from which the sample was drawn.

• The ability to generalize from a sample to the population depends critically on the
representativeness of the sample.

• A biased sample is one in which the characteristics of the sample are systematically different from
the characteristics of the population.

• Selection bias occurs when the procedures used to select a sample result in the
overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment(s) of the population. As we begin to
talk about sampling techniques, we need to be clear about the four terms: population, sampling
frame, sample, and element. A population is the set of all cases of interest. For example, if you are
interested in the attitudes of students on your campus toward computer services, your population is
all students on your campus. Contacting everyone in a large Key Concept
Illustration of relationships among four basic terms in sampling.

POPULATION SAMPLING FRAME SAMPLE ELEMENT One student 100 students Registrar’s list of
currently enrolled students All students on campus population is often practically impossible.
Therefore, researchers usually select a subset of the population to represent the population as a
whole. We need to develop a specific list of the members of the population in order to select a
subset of that population. This specific list is called a sampling frame and is, in a sense, an
operational definition of the population of interest. In a survey of students’ attitudes toward
computer services, the sampling frame might be a list obtained from the registrar’s office of all
currently enrolled students. The extent to which the sampling frame truly reflects the population of
interest determines the adequacy of the sample we ultimately select. The list provided by the
registrar should provide a good sampling frame, but some students might be excluded, such as
students who registered late. The subset of the population actually drawn from the sampling frame
is called the sample. We might select 100 students from the registrar’s list to serve as the sample for
our computer survey. How closely the attitudes of this sample of students will represent all students’
attitudes depends critically on how the sample is selected. Each member of the population is called
an element. The identification and selection of elements that will make up the sample are at the
heart of all sampling techniques. It is important to emphasize at this point that samples are of little
or no interest in themselves. A new computer facility is not going to be built for the sole use of the
100 students surveyed. Similarly, the social psychologist is not interested solely in the racial attitudes
of the 50 people he surveyed, nor is the marketing director interested only in the preferences of the
200 consumers she surveyed. Populations, not samples, are of primary interest. The “power” of
samples to d escribe the larger population is based on the assumption that survey responses in a
sample can be applied to the population from which the sample was drawn.

Following Blalock (1960), most sampling methods can be categorized into two—

(A) Probability Sampling Methods

(B) Nonprobability Sampling Methods
A. Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling methods are those that clearly specify the probability or likelihood of inclusion
of each element or individual in the sample. Technically the probability sampling methods must
satisfy the conditions given below.

1. The size of the parent population or universe from which the sample is to be taken, must be
known to the investigator.
2. Each element or individual in the population must have an equal chance of being included in
a subsequent sample.
3. The desired sample size must be clearly specified.

If, for example, a researcher knows that the population which he is going to study contains 500
elements, or individuals, and if he knows that all the elements (or individuals) are accessible and
may be included in a subsequent sample, it can be said that each element (or individual) in the
population has an equal chance, that is, 1/500 of a chance of being selected. This constitutes the
probability sampling method. In practice, however, sometimes researchers are not able to know for
certainty that conditions (i) and (ii) will be satisfied. Sometimes the population studied is so large as
to be considered infinite and unknowable for all important and practical purposes.

The positive point of the probability sampling method is that the obtained samples are considered
representative, and hence, the conclusions reached from such samples are worth generalization and
are comparable to similar populations to which they belong.

The negative point of the probability sampling method is that a certain amount of sampling error
exists because the researcher has only a limited element of the entire population. Sampling error
refers to the degree to which the sample characteristics approximate the characteristics of the
parent population. The smaller the sample, the greater the sampling error.

The major probability sampling methods are the following:

1. Simple random sampling

2. Stratified random sampling
(a) Proportionate stratified random sampling
(b) Disproportionate stratified random sampling
3. Area or cluster sampling

B. Nonprobability Sampling Methods

Nonprobability sampling is one method in which there is no way of assessing the probability of the
element or group of elements of the population being included in the sample. In other words, non-
probability sampling methods are those that provide no basis for estimating how closely the
characteristics of a sample approximate the parameters of the population from which the sample
had been obtained. This is because nonprobability samples don't use the techniques of random
sampling. Important techniques of nonprobability sampling methods are:

1. Quota sampling
2. Accidental sampling
3. Judgemental or purposive sampling
4. Systematic sampling
5. Snowball sampling
6. Saturation sampling
 7. Dense sampling

NEED FOR SAMPLING

Sampling is needed for a variety of reasons. Some of the important reasons are mentioned below

1. Sampling saves time as well as money. A research study based on sampling completed
within a lesser time and incurs less expenditure than a study based upon other criteria.
2. A research study based upon sampling is generally conducted by trained and experienced
investigators. As such, it provides accuracy in measurement and testing.
3. Sampling is also needed because it enables the researcher to estimate the sampling errors
and that way it helps in getting information regarding some characteristics of the population.
4. Sampling is needed because it remains the only way when a population/universe contains
infinitely many members.
5. Sampling helps in• making correct and scientific judgement about the population for which
generalization is to be made after the completion of the study.

METHODS OF DRAWING RANDOM SAMPLES

Randomness is one of the vital points in sampling, particularly, probability sampling (Peatman,
1947). Randomness means that all elements in' There are P0several methods through which ndent
chance of being included in the sample. There are several methods through which the investigator
maintains randomness in the sampling plans. Some of these methods are given below:

1. Fishbowl Draw Method

2. Using Table of Random Numbers ter-determined Randomness
3. Method of Computer-determined randomness

1. Fishbowl Draw Method

This is a very simple method through which the elements from the population can be selected
randomly. in this method the entire elements (or individuals) of the population are numbered on
slips of paper of equal size, colour, etc. All these slips are folded in one and the same way and are
put in a container or bowl. After mixing the slips thoroughly, the investigator, in a blindfold position,
selects one number at a time until the desired sample size is obtained

Although this method is very simple for random selection of samples, it has some limitations:

a. This method can't be app id where the size of the population is large. It would be a
cumbersome and tedious task to number each element of a population of, say, fifteen
thousand cases. Moreover, mixing them in number container or bowl will also pose a big
problem.
b. This method of random selection is too simple a method to be considered as a scientific one.
Here the investigator may select some numbers of slips from the bowl while purposefully
excluding the others.

2. Using the Table of Random Numbers

For random sampling the use of the table of random numbers is considered appropriate, easy and
scientific. The table of random numbers consists of a continuous row-column sequence of numbers
which don't appear in any particular sequence, nor does any number appear more frequently than
the other one. For using the table of random numbers the researcher specifies the number of
elements in the population and then, numbers them from 1 to N where N is the total number of
elements in the population. Suppose the population size is of 500 and he intends to select 50 cases
randomly from this population. He would enter the table at any point. He may move systematically
to the right, left, up, down or diagonally, skipping the numbers that are too large and also those that
have already been drawn. (This latter event does take place occasionally). He would thus keep on
moving systematically through the table until he has selected the random sample of 50 elements.

3. Method of Computer-Determined Randomness

This method is used when the size of the population is large. The data is fed in the computer to
obtain a random number of elements corresponding to the elements in the population. The
investigators note that this method is easier to adopt when computer facilities are available.

Of these three methods, the use of the table of random numbers is more popular for
ensuring randomness in the method of selecting a sample.

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE

A simple random sample (also known as an unrestricted random sample) may he defined as one in
which each and every individual of the population has an equal chance of being included in the
sample, and also the selection of one individual is in no way dependent upon the selection of
another Individual. For example, if we are to select a sample of 10 students from the seventh grade
consisting of 40 students, we can write the name (or roll number) of each of the 40 students on
separate slips of paper—all equal in size and colour—and fold them in a similar way. Subsequently,
they may be placed in a box and reshuffled thoroughly. A blindfolded person, then, may be asked to
pick up one slip. Here, the probability of each slip being selected is 1/40. Suppose that after selecting
the slip and noting the name written on the slip, he again returns it to the box. In this case, the
probability of the second slip being selected is again 1/40. But if he does not return the first slip to
the box, the probability of the second slip becomes 1/39. When an element of the population is
returned to the population after being selected, it is called sampling with replacement and when it is
not returned, it is called sampling without replacement. Sampling with replacement is wholly
feasible except in certain situations where it is seldom used (Cochran, 1963: 19). If sampling with
replacement is used, the chance of the same case being selected more than one i increased. In such
a situation, the repeated cases may be ignored as is done if a table of random numbers is used in
making a selection of cases. Thus, random sampling may he defined as one in which all possible
combinations of samples of fixed size have an equal probability of being selected.

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE

In stratified random sampling the population is, first, divided into two or more strata, which may be
based upon a single criterion such as yielding two strata—male and female, or upon a combination
of two or more criteria such as sex and graduation, yielding four strata, namely, male
undergraduates, male graduates, female undergraduates and female graduates. These divided
populations are called subpopulations, which are non-overlapping and together constitute the whole
population. Having divided the population into two i.e. strata, which are considered to be
homogeneous internally, a simple random sample for the desired number is taken from each
population stratum. Thus, in stratified random sampling stratification of population is the first
requirement. There can be many reasons for stratification in a population. Two of them are
mentioned below.

1. Stratification tends to increase the precision in estimating the attributes of the whole
population. If the whole population is divided into several internally homogeneous units, the
chances of variations in the measurements from one unit to another are almost nil. In such a
situation a precise estimate can be made for each unit and by combining all these estimates,
we can make a still more precise estimate regarding the population.
2. Stratification gives some convenience in sampling. When the population is divided into
several units a person or group of persons may be deputed to supervise the sampling survey
in each unit Or. the possibility is that the institution conducting the sampling survey may
have field branches to supervise the survey in each part or unit of the population.

Stratified random sampling is of 2 types:

a. Proportionate stratified random sampling

b. Disproportionate stratified random sampling

Discussion of these is types of sampling plans is as follows.

A. PROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

In this sampling the researcher stratifies the population according to the known characteristics of
the population and, subsequently, randomly draws the individuals in a similar proportion from its
stratum of the population.

B. DISPROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Disproportionate stratified random sampling bears similarity with the proportionate stratified
random sampling. The only difference is that the substrata of the drawn sample are not in the
copulation from which they were randomly selected. In fact, some of the strata of the population
may be overrepresented or same underrepresented. Sampling disproportionately means that

a. Either the investigator will give equal weight to each of the substrata, or
b. He will give greater representation to some substrata and not enough weight to other
substrata of the population in the sample to be drawn

Suppose the investigator divides a given population of 10,000 individuals into 6,000 males and 4,000
females. If he has decided to draw a sample of 1,000 individuals from the set of 10,000 and if he
draws randomly both the males and the females in equal number, say, 500 each, it will constitute
the example of a disproportionate stratified random sampling. But if he randomly draws 600 males
and 400 females in his sample, it will constitute the example of proportionate stratified random
sampling. From this example it becomes obvious that in the disproportionate stratified random
sample the investigator tries to give equal weight to each stratum, that is, he tries to draw equal
number of individuals from each stratum. In doing so he overrepresents one stratum while
underrepresents the other strata. In this example, when he randomly draws 500 males and 500
females, he is overrepresenting a female stratum and underrepresenting a male stratum.
AREA (OR CLUSTER) SAMPLING
Area (or cluster) sampling is another important method of probability sampling. Such method has its
origin in the field of agriculture. Farming experiments that were conducted to determine the effect
of various kinds of fertilizers, soil treatments and a variety of planting methods yield, mostly used
this method of sampling. In social sciences application of area sampling has been extensive in survey
research and field research.

In area sampling, generally, geographical divisions of territory, community, neighbourhood, cities,

states, etc., are made on a map and a certain number of them is drawn at random and called
sample. The investigator or interviewer proceeds to interview all elements of the randomly drawn
areas or clusters. That is the reason why this method of sampling is also known as Cluster sampling.

Suppose the investigator wants to assess the attitude of the people of Tamil Nadu towards family
planning. For this, it will be convenient for the investigator to have the map of Tamil Nadu before
him and then divide it into various sections according to a number of vertical and horizontal grid
lines drawn across the total area. He will then number each section from 1 to N, N being equal to the
total number of sections. With the help of the table of random numbers, he will draw a specified
number of sections to constitute the sample that he will finally study. The investigator will, then,
interview all persons or members often families living in those sections. If any drawn section
contains extremely different types of families, again, a random selection from among those families
can be done and finally interviewed. In this way according to necessity further subdivision and
selection of samples can be done to different stages. This is called multi-stage sampling.

QUOTA SAMPING
This sampling is one of the important types of non-probability sampling methods which is apparently
similar to stratified random sampling. In Quota sampling the investigator recognizes the different
strata of population and from each stratum he selects the number of individuals arbitrarily. This
constitutes the quota sample.

Suppose the investigator knows that the population of the individuals he is going to study has three
strata in terms of SES (socio-economic status)—high, middle, and low. Further, suppose he knows
that there are 1,000 people in high SES, 7,000 people in middle SES and 2,000 people in lower SES.
Thus, the population consists of 10,000 individuals. If he wants to select 1,000 individuals and,
finally, selects 100 individuals from high SES, 700 from middle SES and 200 from lower SES, according
to his convenience (and not randomly), this constitutes quota sample. It is obvious that there is
similarity between quota sampling and proportionate stratified random sampling with the only
difference that in the former the final selection of individuals is not random, whereas in the latter
the final selection of individuals is random. Keeping in view this similarity, quota sampling is
sometimes referred to as "the poor man's proportionate stratified sample", because such sampling
seeks to ensure that specific elements are included and represented in subsequent collection of
them.

PURPOSIVE OR JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING

Purposive sample, a kind of non-probability sample is one which is based on the typicality of the
cases to be included in the sample. The investigator has some belief that the sample being
handpicked is typical of the population or is a very good representative of the population. A
purposive sample is also known as judgemental sample because the investigator on the basis of his
impression makes a judgement regarding the concerned cases, which are thought to be typical of
the population. For studying attitudes towards any national issue, a sample of journalists, teachers
and legislators may be taken as an example of purposive samples because they can more reasonably
be expected to represent the correct attitude than other classes of persons residing in the country.
Before the start of general elections, purposive samples are often taken in an attempt to forecast
the national elections. The investigator selects the persons from those states whose election results
on previous polls have approximated the actual results and thus, have been typical of the whole
population

ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING
Accidental sampling, also known as incidental sampling, is another popular method of non-
probability sampling plan. It refers to a sampling procedure in which the investigator selects the
persons according to his convenience. Here he does not care about including the people with some
specific or designated trait, rather he is mainly guided by convenience and economy. Heiman (1995)
has named it as convenience sampling. This is a crude method of sampling, and the investigator
knows that little can he generalized from the sample thus drawn.

An investigator may take students of class X into research plan because the class teacher of that
class happens to be his friend. This illustrates accidental sampling.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Systematic sampling is another method of non-probability sampling plan, though the label
'systematic' is somewhat misleading in the sense that all probability sampling methods are also
systematic sampling methods. Due to this, it often sounds that systematic sampling should be
included under one category of probability sampling, but in reality, this is not the case.

Systematic sampling may be defined as drawing or selecting every nth person from a predetermined
list of elements or individuals. Selecting every 5th roll number in a class of 60 students will constitute
systematic sampling. Likewise, drawing every 8th name from a telephone directory is an example of
systematic sampling. If we pay attention to the systematic sampling plan, it becomes obvious that
such a plan possesses certain characteristics of randomness (first element selected is a random one)
and at the same time, possesses some non-probability traits such as excluding all persons between
every nth element chosen.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling, which is a non-probability sampling method, is basically indirectly sociometric. It
is defined as having all the persons in a group or organisation identifying their friends who in turn
identify their friends and associates until the researcher observes that a constellation of friendships
converges into some type of a definite social pattern. Some selected behaviour is usually used as the
basis of contact and/or association. Obviously, then, snowball sampling is used for obtaining an
impression of informal social relations among individuals. In fact, the reality is that sometimes the
researcher seeks to study a 'hidden' population which is not easily identifiable, as when he deals
with drug addicts, hardened criminals, prostitutes, and so on. In such cases, snowball sampling is
used. Here the researcher identifies one potential subject and from him, he obtains the name and
addresses of other subjects and from them, he obtains still other potential subjects so that the
growth of the sample tends to build or 'snowball'. Coleman et al. (1957) used the snowball sampling
successfully in a study of diffusion of medical information among physicians. The purpose was to
determine how physicians come to use certain medical products such as drugs and related supplies.
Snowball sampling revealed the pattern of diffusion of information. Besides, such sampling can also
locate the physicians' cliques through which such information is revealed. It may answer the
questions: Do the physicians read about new drugs in journals or hear about it in some medical
seminar? If they hear about it in some medical seminar or convention, whom do they contact among
their physician friends regarding it? How does information about a given drug spread among
physician fellows? And so on.

Snowball sampling has important research applications in relatively small business and industrial
organisations where N is expected not to exceed 100. Such sampling is more convenient to the
studies of social change and diffusion of information among specific segments of social
organizations.

SATURATION SAMPLING AND DENSE SAMPLING

Coleman (1959) has emphasized these two types of sampling techniques which are used less
frequently as compared to other techniques of sampling. Saturation sampling is defined as drawing
all elements or individuals having characteristics of interest to the investigator. Drawing all
physicians having at least the age of 45 (from a small community), would be called saturation
sampling. Dense sampling is a method of sampling which lies somewhere between simple random
sampling and saturation sampling. When the researcher selects 50% or more from the population
and takes a majority of individuals having specified traits or characteristics which are of interest to
him, it is called dense sampling. For example, if the researcher selects 500 to 600 students from a
population of 1,000 students, it will constitute dense sampling.

DOUBLE SAMPLING
Double sampling, as its name implies is defined as drawing a sample of individuals from another
sample of them. Suppose the investigator randomly draws a sample of 1,000 from a population
having N = 10,000. From these 1,000 individuals, he again randomly draws a sample of 300 for
further study. This is called double sampling.

Suppose the researcher is studying the attitude of newly married couples towards family planning
through mail questionnaire. For this, he mailed 1,000 questionnaires to one thousand couples
residing in different localities. He finds that only 40% (that is 400) questionnaires were returned.
From these 400 persons, he draws randomly a sample of 100 and mails another questionnaire to get
their in-depth knowledge towards the different techniques of family planning. This is called double
sampling.

For double sampling to be an effective part of the research, it is essential that the sampling plan
followed from the beginning should maximize the representativeness of the individuals drawn
subsequently. This method has the disadvantage of taking much time and labour of the researchers.