ISBN 0-662-30780-1 Cat. No.

Fo 29-6/54-2001E
54
Introduction to
Pest
F O R E S T

Forest Diseases
B. Callan

LEAFLET Illustrations by Soren Henrich

and John Wiens
Pacific Forestr y Centre

Introduction
Contents The appearance and commercial
Introduction ................................................. 1 and recreational use of forested
land is greatly affected by
A quick guide to some
features of tree diseases................................ 2
diseases, insects, fire, and adverse
weather. Of these, diseases and wood
Development of infectious diseases ............. 3 decay cause the greatest losses and
What are fungi? ........................................... 3 present the greatest threat to tree
An overview of fungus classes
growth, outranking all other agents in
associated with tree diseases destructiveness. Forest pathologists
1. Water molds: Oomycetes ....................... 4 conduct research on, and prescribe
2. Sac fungi and molds: treatments for, the many complex
Ascomycetes and Mitosporic fungi ......... 4 diseases that affect the health of our
3. Mushrooms and conks: forests. This leaflet is a basic
Hymenomycetes (Holobasidiomycetes) ... 4 introduction to forest
4. Rusts: Urediniomycetes ......................... 4 pathology. Included here are
Fungus anatomy ......................................... 5 descriptions of some common types
of forest diseases and their causes, as
Examples of diseases caused by fungi
1. Diseases caused by water molds ........... 6
well as an outline of common
2. Diseases caused by sac fungi and molds 6 principles of disease control and
3. Diseases caused by mushrooms and conks . 8 investigation.
4. Diseases caused by rusts ...................... 9
The term “tree disease” covers a
Viruses, bacteria and
mycoplasma-like organisms ....................... 11
wide range of pathogenic infections,
Stalactiform blister rust -
abnormalities, and disturbances of
Disease caused by dwarf mistletoes .......... 11 Cronartium coleosporioides
the normal structure and growth of a
Non-infectious agents of disease ............. 11 tree. Many different species of
Principles of control of forest diseases ..... 12
organisms and non-living agents can than fire, insect damage or other types
cause diseases that may reduce of wounding (e.g. animals or hail).
Principles of forest pathology .................... 13 growth, lower quality, kill outright, or The causes of tree disease are
Submitting disease samples ...................... 13 predispose a tree to attack by other usually classified as non-infectious or
Selected references ................................... 14
pests. By definition, “tree disease” infectious. However, disease
refers to the deleterious effects symptoms usually develop as a result
A short glossary of forest disease terms ..... 14 resulting from injurious agents other of a complex interaction between the

Natural Resources Ressources naturelles

Canada Canada
Canadian Forest Service canadien
Service des forêts
 distress
crop of
cones

Conifer witches’ Hardwood

broom

chlorosis

dieback leaf
spot
needle
cast
2

canker
mycelial galls
fan resinosis
conk
leaf scorch

mushroom butt rot

root rot

root rot

A quick guide to some features of tree diseases

susceptible tree, predisposing environmental conditions, or a living, infectious agent such as a fungus. An awareness of this
interaction of living and non-living agents enables greater insight into the dynamics behind disease outbreaks.

In western Canada there are more than 300 species of native pathogenic fungi that are associated with diseases of
various species of forest trees. For the most part, they are endemic, causing low, chronic levels of damage throughout the
range of their host. Some organisms considered “pests” in stressed trees are in fact acting as culling agents for weakened
individuals.

Forestry practices or unusual weather patterns sometimes alter environmental conditions to favor unusually high levels of
disease. Accidental introductions of non-native pathogens such as white pine blister rust have in the past caused serious
forest disease breakouts because the hosts have not evolved any resistance.

Many common forest diseases in British Columbia are described in greater detail elsewhere in the Forest Pest Leaflet
series. These and other forest pathology publications can be obtained from the Candian Forest Service Bookstore at
http://bookstore.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/, or by writing to the address on the last page of this publication.

The technical terms used in this leaflet (identified in boldface) are defined in the glossary on pages 14 and 15.

Development of infectious diseases

Living organisms inciting forest diseases are called pathogens, and the affected tree is called the host. Most pathogens of
western trees are fungi, but several species of dwarf mistletoes, which are flowering plants, also cause serious diseases in trees.
A few species of bacteria, nematodes (microscopic roundworms), water molds (Stramenopiles) and viruses are also known tree
pathogens.

Diseases affect the normal function of a tree in various ways. For example, disease-induced defoliation may reduce the
amount of food produced by photosynthesis. Stem cankers weaken the trunk or reduce transport of food to the roots. Root
decay increases the risk of windthrow, and reduces water and mineral absorption.
hypha
To develop successfully a disease requires:

1. A susceptible host: a host that is unable to suppress pathogen development.

Seasonal development and tree vigor can affect host susceptibility.
2. A virulent pathogen: a pathogen that has the ability to cause disease and
produce inoculum (e.g., spores) to infect the host.
3. A favorable environment: conditions that are suitable (in terms of moisture,
temperature, etc.) and of sufficient duration to allow penetration of the host septa
and subsequent establishment of the pathogen.

What are fungi? Detail of hypha

Fungi are a distinct kingdom of organisms that are neither plants nor animals. The basic fungal vegetative structure is the
microscopic hypha, a thread-like tube that may be separated into cells by the formation of cross-walls (septa). Unlike plants
and animals, fungi absorb all their food from external sources. The hyphae grow through or on their food substrate, and
sometimes form a visible (usually whitish) mat called a mycelium. Many fungi are saprophytic or parasitic.

Fungi reproduce by forming specialized cells or groups of cells called spores. Spores may be borne directly on a hypha
(i.e., molds). Other fungi disseminate their spores from specialized mycelial structures, called fruit bodies, which are
extremely diverse in shape and size (see illustrations on page 5). Fruit body types include mushrooms, bracket fungi, discs,
cups, minute flask-like perithecia, and pycnidia, to name a few. They are formed either as a means of sexual reproduction,
or simply vegetatively under the right conditions. The morphology of fruit bodies – and particularly how the spores are borne
– is one of the bases of classification of fungus classes associated with tree diseases.

3
An overview of fungus classes associated with tree diseases

One group of fungus-like organisms and three main groups of fungi are associated with diseases of forest trees. These
groups are described in the following overview, and specific disease examples are described in a later section. Generally, the
type of disease is characteristic of the group of organisms: for instance, bracket fungi and mushrooms are usually associated
with wood and root decay. Some exceptions and overlaps are noted.

1) Water molds: Oomycetes

The Oomycetes are microscopic soil and water organisms which were spore

formerly classified as fungi but are now placed in a group known as the
Stramenopiles. They differ from true fungi in cell wall composition and features of flagellae, which
propel the spore
the motile swimming spores. They are more closely related to the brown algae and
diatoms than true fungi. In forestry, some species are associated with diseases of 1 µm
roots, especially of seedlings. Fruit bodies are too small to see with the unaided
eye. The asexual spores, called zoospores, are motile and aquatic and are
produced inside structures called sporangia. Water is required for their
dissemination. The sexual spores, oospores, are thick-walled and non-motile.
Diagnosis of water mold root rots and damping-off caused by Oomycetes usually Motile spore (zoospore) of an Oomycete
requires laboratory culturing techniques and the use of a microscope.

2) Sac fungi and molds: Ascomycetes and Mitosporic

Fungi (formerly called Deuteromycetes, or Fungi Imperfecti)
The ascomycetes (see illustrations, facing page) produce their sexual spores in sacs known as asci. The asci, which
usually contain eight ascospores, are usually produced in fruit bodies (such as flask-shaped perithecia or cup-shaped
apothecia) that range from microscopic to large discs up to 15 cm in diameter. Ascospores, which are often released by an
explosion of the ascus, become wind-borne. Many ascomycetes also produce an asexual (conidial, or mitosporic) spore
stage that is known as the anamorph. The anamorph usually occurs as a mold-like growth before development of the sexual
stage, or teleomorph. Frequently only the anamorph occurs in nature. When the teleomorph is unknown they are grouped in
an artificial assemblage called mitosporic fungi (former names include Deuteromycetes and Fungi Imperfecti). Conidia of
mitosporic fungi are produced on specialized hyphae called conidiophores, which may develop in specialized fruit bodies,
such as pycnidia. Diseases incited by these fungi are mostly cankers, leaf blights, needle casts and vascular wilts
(clogging and damaging of conductive tissues).

3) Mushrooms and conks: Hymenomycetes (Holobasidiomycetes)

Examples of hymenomycete fruit bodies are the familiar mushroom, and the bracket fungus. All hymenomycetes, which
are members of the phylum Basidiomycota, are characterized by microscopic, usually club-shaped, one-celled basidia.
Basidia cover the surfaces of mushroom gills, bracket fungi pores, and other fruit bodies, collectively producing millions of
basidiospores. Examples of some of these structures are illustrated on the facing page. Many of these fungi commonly
cause wood decays and root rots. Mushrooms which fruit under forest trees are a common sight. Many species of
mushrooms are not pathogens, but in fact benefit trees. Their mycelium forms a symbiotic association with tree roots,
helping the roots absorb water and minerals for the tree. These fungus-roots are called mycorrhizae.

4) Rusts: Urediniomycetes (Basidiomycota)

The Urediniomycetes (see pages 9 to 11 for illustrations), or rusts, form a unique group of obligate parasites. Many
rust fungi complete their life cycle on two unrelated host plants. They produce up to five different spore states, one of which
(the thick-walled overwintering teliospore) germinates to form a basidium. Each spore state can differ notably in appearance
from others, so the same disease may look different depending on which spore state is currently being produced.
Microscopically, the basidia of rust fungi differ from hymenomycetes in that they are usually four-celled. The name “rust”
describes the characteristic sign of these pathogens: infected areas of the host are often covered with conspicuous rusty
orange to yellow masses of loose spores. Some rusts produce blister-like cankers on stems; others attack only the needles,
leaves or cones of trees.

4
 Fungus Anatomy

Mushrooms and Conks microscopic features

(Holobasidiomycetes)
scales

cap

gills

ring basidiospore
cap
stalk

basidium

volva
pores
host 2 µm
2 µm
mycelium

Mushroom Conk (bracket fungus) Basidium

Sac Fungi
(Ascomycetes)

spore-bearing
surface
ostiole ascus

ascospore

leaf tissue

stalk
ascus perithecium
substrate
30 µm 10 µm

Apothecium of a cup fungus Perithecium of a leaf spot fungus Ascus

(actual size)

Conidial states of Ascomycetes

conidium

spore tendril

conidiogenous
cell

conidia
conidiophore

pycnidium
conidiogenous 5 µm
10 µm cells
hypha

Pycnidium Conidiophore

5
 Examples of diseases caused by fungi

1. Diseases caused by water molds (Oomycetes)

Water molds cause root rot in conifers and damping-off of their seedlings.
Two genera of fungi are often associated with these diseases. Damping-off is
blackened often associated with Pythium under certain conditions of poor drainage. The bark
stem tissue
tissue of the roots of certain conifers is susceptible to rotting caused by
Phytophthora. Disease symptoms are usually most severe under conditions of
poor drainage.

Damping-off symptoms on a conifer seedling 2. Diseases caused by sac fungi and molds
(Ascomycetes and mitosporic fungi)
Leaf spots and anthracnoses
diseased
tissue falls
out of leaf The foliage of broadleaf trees is subject to a great variety of fungi that kill part
or all of the leaf. Occasionally early defoliation results. The necrotic spots are
sometimes sharply delineated and often round when first developing. Some fungi
produce a black sclerotium (or tar spot) in the leaf that may fall away leaving a
“shot-hole.”

Needle casts and blights

Needle cast fungi infect only young, developing

needles of the current year, but needle blights may
Shot-hole symptoms in a leaf occur on any age of needles. Often these diseases
take longer than a year to manifest symptoms. There
is usually little evidence of attack during the year of
infection while the fungus grows vegetatively in the
needle tissues. In the following year, yellowing or
reddening of infected needles occurs and fruit bodies
may appear in these discolored areas. Frequently the
needles are cast after spore discharge, but in some
types of needle blights the dead foliage remains on
the tree for abnormally long periods. The fruit bodies
ascomycetes Lophodermella concolor and
Lophodermella montivaga are responsible for
widespread needle cast of 1-year-old foliage of
lodgepole pine. Another ascomycete, Lirula
macrospora, causes needle blight of spruce. Needle cast symptoms and signs

Cone, seed and seedling diseases

Blight symptoms Several fungi either damage cones, kill the seed, or are seed-borne, attacking
seedlings that emerge at germination. The mitosporic fungus Sirococcus
strobilinus, for example, is seed-borne, infecting the seed cones of many conifers
and producing pycnidia, which ooze slimy conidia that stick to the seeds. The
fungus does not kill the seed, but may infect and kill the germinant when it
emerges. The ascomycete Caloscypha fulgens infects conifer seed cones that fall
to the ground. Its hyphae penetrate the seed coat and destroy the seed. In the
spring, large orange cup-shaped apothecia are produced above the buried seeds.

6
 Cankers and diebacks of bark

A canker is a localized lesion or area of necrosis on stems or branches.

Three general types of cankers may be encountered on trees:

1. Perennial or target cankers are circular to lens-shaped and may include

callus tissue (usually in concentric ridges) at the face or margins. The canker
expands slowly, roughly equaling the radial growth of the tree. A target canker
commonly seen on native Prunus is caused by the ascomycete Tympanis sp.

2. Diffuse cankers grow more rapidly than the radial growth of the tree and so
include little or no callus. They usually girdle the tree after several years. A diffuse,
sooty-bark canker of aspen is associated with the ascomycete Encoelia pruinosa.

3. Annual cankers or canker blights

develop rapidly for one season only and
contain little or no callus. They frequently
occur on stressed trees that have been
predisposed by frost, drought, or physical
damage. Annual cankers of Douglas-fir
are caused by the ascomycete Diaporthe
lokoyae (anamorph = Phomopsis
Target canker symptoms on Prunus lokoyae) in times of water stress or frost
damage. The dead bark is overgrown by
callus in the following growing season,
however, and complete healing can
result. If the canker fungus also invades
the underlying wood, canker rot is
produced. One example is Atropellis Transverse section of stem
canker of lodgepole pine, a perennial with Atropellis canker rot.
canker caused by the ascomycete
Atropellis piniphila. Atropellis cankers are usually large, sunken, and resin-soaked
with a bluish-black stain of the underlying wood. Black disc-like apothecia 2-3 mm
in diameter develop on the cankers.

Root rots
sunken
necrotic
tissue In the nursery, species of Fusarium, Phoma and Cylindrocladium are
associated with the damping-off and dieback of seedlings. These fungi are
mitosporic fungi, the anamorphs of ascomycetes. Rhizina undulata is an
ascomycete that attacks conifer seedlings planted in recently burned areas. It
produces a very large black disc-shaped fruit body (apothecium) around dead
seedlings and burned woody debris.

Wood stains

Certain deep-seated stains in wood indicate the incipient stage of decay.

Other stains are caused by ascomycetes that do not break down the wood
Phomopsis canker on Douglas-fir
appreciably but may lower its commercial value. Blue sapwood stain is an
example of the latter case.

7
 3. Diseases caused by mushrooms and conks

Wood decay of stems

Mostly caused by mushrooms and conk-producing fungi, stem decays are

classified as heart rots or sap rots on the basis of the type of wood colonized. In
living trees, most decay fungi colonize the heartwood. Some, however, may
decay both heartwood and sapwood and a few fungi attack only sapwood. Most
sapwood decays occur in recently felled trees. In general, the fungus breaks
branch
stub down the bond between the lignin and cellulose components of wood and uses
them in its growth. Fungi that use only cellulose cause brown cubical rots; the
name aptly describes the remaining wood, which is high in lignin. Fungi using
both lignin and cellulose cause white rots, so called because the remaining
wood, which has a high cellulose content, is light in color. White rots may be
conk stringy, laminated, pitted, or mottled depending on the species of fungus involved,
but they are never cubical. Decay fungi gain access to the heartwood or sapwood
through damaged bark, broken branches and tops, and roots. Infection can be
caused by airborne spores or by the spread of mycelium underground from a
heart rot nearby infected tree, through root contact or special fungal structures such as the
shoestring-like rhizomorphs of Armillaria (a root and butt-rot mushroom). Decay
fungi normally develop slowly and rot may be present in a tree for many years or
decades before the spore-producing conks or mushrooms appear. The presence
of conks is thus often a sign of advanced decay in the tree. As long as the
conditions for fungal growth are favorable, the process of decay is continuous.
Those favorable conditions include appropriate temperature, moisture, oxygen,
and nutrient levels.

Root rot and stump infections

undersurface of
conk showing
pores Certain basidiomycetes, such as Phellinus weirii, colonize large roots of
mature conifers decay the wood, and kill living roots, resulting in tree mortality.
The fungus spreads to other trees by root contact and establishes a disease
Heart rot, and conk developing at a branch centre (area of dead and dying trees) in the stand. Affected trees often have
stub deteriorating crowns, distress cone crops, and are subject to windthrow. Even
after trees are cut down, the fungus remains alive in the dead roots and may
perpetuate the disease to future rotations. The spores of other root rot fungi, for
example, Heterobasidion annosum, can colonize the freshly-cut stumps of healthy
conifers and establish themselves in the dead roots from where the fungus can
mushroom spread via grafting to healthy trees. For this reason, stump treatments are used
during commercial thinning to either kill pathogenic fungi or encourage other, non-
pathogenic decay fungi, which compete with and thus prevent the development of
pathogenic fungi.

Wood decay of dead timber and slash

Decay of slash and wood debris in a forest ecosystem is not considered a

disease, but rather an important process in recycling forest elements to the soil.
Brown rotted wood is a major component of forest soils. In addition, many cavity-
nesting birds and animals rely on hollows and soft pockets of wood decoy to build
Armillaria root rot and butt decay nests in trees, snags and stumps.

However, fungal decay of wood used in construction is a concern. Some tree

species are more resistant to decay than others (for example, western redcedar is
more durable than Douglas-fir) and exposed sapwood is less resistant than
heartwood. Moisture is a critical factor; approximately 25% water content or more
is required for decay to proceed. The majority of serious wood decay fungi are
basidiomycetes.

8
 4. Diseases caused by rusts (Urediniomycetes)
The rusts are obligate parasites that often have a complex life cycle (see
illustration on page 10) generally requiring two unrelated (alternate) hosts (such as
a tree and a herbaceous plant) for completion. Two types of spore-producing
structures (spermagonia, and aecia) are produced on the aecial host and three
types of spore-producing structures (uredinia, telia, and basidia) occur on the telial
uredinia host. A host-alternating rust is termed heteroecious. Some rusts complete their
life cycle on a single host; these are called autoecious. The aecial host of
heteroecious tree rusts is usually a conifer, but there are exceptions. To make
matters even more complicated, not all types of spores are produced by every rust;
some have reduced life cycles.

Leaf and needle rusts (for example, Melampsora and Pucciniastrum)

A typical foliar rust life cycle is illustrated on page 10. Most foliage rusts are
Leaf rust host-alternating. Because the aecial host is more frequently a conifer, the
spermagonial and aecial states are both found on needles. Spermagonia appear
in spring as inconspicuous spots that exude spermatia in droplets of sweet liquid.
Insects spread spermatia to adjacent spermagonia, where they fertilize receptive
hyphae. Aecia form soon after at the same site and are conspicuous white,
yellow, or orange structures with masses of aeciospores. Aeciospores can only
infect the non-coniferous telial host.

On the leaves of the telial host (fireweed, for instance), uredinia develop as
cream-colored pustules that produce urediniospores. This spore stage quickly
spreads the rust on the telial host, as it infects, grows and sporulates in several
cycles over the same season. Telia develop in the place of uredinia in late
summer and the teliospores either germinate in the same summer or overwinter.
On germinating, the teliospore produces a basidium, which in turn produces four
basidiospores. The basidiospores infect only the coniferous aecial host.

Aecia of the fir-willow rust (Melampsora Leaf and needle rusts are most damaging to young trees because premature
abieti-capraearum) on the underside of an defoliation may weaken the tree in this crucial stage of growth.
alpine fir needle
Cone rusts (Chrysomyxa)

Spruce cone rusts are economically important diseases in British Columbia,

particularly in seed orchards. When aecia are produced on the cone scales, the
whole cone — including the seeds — may be destroyed or seed germination may
be reduced. Resinosis can hinder dispersal or extraction of seeds from the cones.

Alternate hosts (producing telia) of the cone rust are inconspicuous flowering
plants (for example, Moneses and Pyrola).

Stem rusts (Cronartium)

Stem rusts, which are among the most destructive forest pathogens, occur
aecia
only on pines. The large blister-like cankers or the galls they produce weaken and
may eventually kill the tree.
Needle rust
White pine blister rust, caused by Cronartium ribicola, has essentially
eliminated white pine as a usable species in B.C. Its alternate host may be one of
several species of currants and gooseberries (Ribes). The large, orange aecial
blisters appear on the pine in the spring and release aeciospores, which the wind
carries to the Ribes leaves. This is not a native pathogen, but was introduced
around 1910 on imported pines from Europe.

9
 An Example of a Rust Life Cycle
(fir-fireweed rust)

Aeciospores June
May -
carried by wind
June to fireweed
July -
September

Uredinia visible
(cream discoloration
Aecia develop on undersurface of leaves)
1 week later

Spermagonia
develop Urediniospores
before aecia reinfect and
intensify disease

Basidiospores
windblown
to true fir
Telia
overwinter
in dead
leaves
Teliospores
germinate
and produce
basidiospores Telia produced
on leaves

September -
October

next
May

Primary Host Alternate Host

(True fir) (Fireweed)

10
 Broom rusts (for example, Chrysomyxa and
Melampsorella)

Conspicuous, yellowish-orange witches’ brooms are

produced in spruce trees by the fungus Chrysomyxa
arctostaphyli. The aecial pustules develop in the broom
on current-year needles, which turn yellow and are shed
dusty, yellow
in the fall. Because the rust develops into a systemic
to orange aecia infection, new needles in an established broom always
produce aecia each year. Hypertrophy, dead branches,
bole deformation, and increment loss result. The alternate
host is the common bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi).
Melampsorella caryophyllacearum causes brooms of
the true firs (Abies spp.). The alternate host is
chickweed (in the family Caryophyllaceae).

sticky ooze from Galls

spermagonia
Stalactiform blister rust
Some rust fungi (and some ascomycetes, too) cause
Cronartium coleosporioides
hypertrophy and hyperplasia of stem tissue, which results
in swollen areas called galls. Western gall rust, Witches’
Endocronartium harknessi, is common on stems and brooms
branches of lodgepole pine. Many galls are also caused
by insects and bacteria.

Viruses, bacteria and mycoplasma-like organisms

These three groups of submicroscopic to microscopic organisms are

important in plant and tree diseases in many parts of the world. In western
Canada, however, none of these are currently associated with a major forest tree
disease. A rare gall disease on stems of Douglas-fir is caused by a soil-borne
pathogenic bacterium.

Disease caused by dwarf mistletoes

Dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium spp.) are parasitic plants that can cause
Gall rust severe swelling, brooming, and deformation of conifers. The germinating dwarf
mistletoe seed produces a root capable of penetrating the bark and growing into
the phloem. Later, parts of this root system become embedded in successive
layers of wood. Infections are perennial and after 2-5 years the plants produce
conspicuous male and female aerial shoots. The seeds, produced by the aerial
female shoots, are sticky and forcibly ejected to distances up to 7-10 m.

Non-infectious agents of disease

Non-living stress factors can also injure and kill trees. Mostly these are
meteorological extremes affecting temperature and moisture, but human-caused
problems such as air pollution also cause tree disease. As a rule, symptoms of
non-infectious diseases are uniform on the entire tree, or increase in intensity
closer to the source of emission in the case of pollution, while symptoms of
infectious diseases are variable and more random.

The general decline of forest vigor in many parts of the world is now attributed
to “acid rain,” the deposition of sulphur dioxide and other pollutants from industrial
air pollution.

Aerial shoots of lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe

11
 fruit
bodies
present

all needles diseased

showing same needles scattered
symptoms among healthy needles

Non-infectious disease symptoms Infectious disease symptoms

Direct fume damage to foliage may also occur in the Principles of control of forest diseases
vicinity of smelters and pulp mills. The symptoms are
yellowing and withering of the leaves and, if repeated year There are many diseases in the forest for which no
after year, damage leads to dieback of branches. control measures have been devised, or for which control is
neither logistically nor economically feasible on a large
Occasionally herbicides, other pesticides, and fertilizers scale. Diseases that are amenable to treatment, however,
cause leaf damage, defoliation, and tree mortality. Early have been controlled with the following measures:
symptoms of injury may be expressed through twisting,
other deformation of foliage, or discoloring of leaf margins • Proper site selection
on sensitive plants. Correct site selection for planting will minimize damage
from most native diseases in a stand by promoting good
Frost and cold weather are serious causes of damage growth and natural resistance.
to trees in Canada. A late spring frost may kill newly flushed
shoots and leaves, whereas an early autumn frost may • Forest management
damage bark that has not hardened for the winter. Winter Practices such as thinning, pruning, and cutting can be
flecking of needles is frequently mistaken for infectious used to control certain diseases. Dwarf mistletoe control, for
needle cast diseases. example, depends almost entirely on harvesting methods
(see Forest Pest Leaflet No. 44).
“Red belt,” or winter drying, is a needle discoloration
that affects large tracts of coniferous forests in a specific • Direct control
altitudinal zone. The affected trees, which have reddened Infection can be prevented and residual disease centres
foliage, occur in long, narrow, horizontal “belts” on a eliminated by measures such as the application of fungicides,
mountainside. Tree mortality has resulted from these stump treatment after felling, and removal of diseased
occurrences which are associated with warm winds in stumps. All of these treatments are used to control root
winter. The condition was once explained as resulting from disease.
increased transpiration when the ground was frozen,
resulting in desiccated needles, but is now thought to be • Quarantine
caused by a rapid drop in temperature following a thaw. Legally restricting the movement of trees from a
diseased area to disease-free areas is a means of
Sunscald is heat injury to bark and cambium resulting preventing introduction or controlling the spread of a pest.
from the direct exposure of young trees to intense sunlight.
Cankers, pitch blisters, and open wounds may occur where • Breeding for resistance
the bark is killed. Selection of trees that show resistance to disease and use
of resistant trees in breeding programs offers hope that some
Non-infectious diseases such as winter drying, late pest problems may be genetically overcome.
frosts and air pollution often produce symptoms that may be
confused with foliar diseases caused by fungi. The
environmental diseases may be distinguished from
infectious diseases by the absence of fruit bodies and the
lack of randomness characteristic of infectious needle
diseases (healthy needles scattered among diseased ones -
see illustrations above).

12
Principles of forest pathology Submitting disease samples
Greater understanding of forest disease syndromes often The Pacific Forestry Centre Herbarium accepts
involves much painstaking study. Complicating factors such identification requests on a limited basis, if the collections
as predisposing weather, secondary fungi and genetic pertain to forest pathology or biodiversity research on forest
variation in a single species of fungus or host, require that fungi in B.C. If collections are from the Victoria area, please
each step of an investigation be carefully undertaken contact the herbarium directly (see telephone, facsimile,
according to scientific principles. The following aspects of a numbers, street and email addresses on the back page of
pathogen and techniques used in its study are important to this Pest Leaflet) prior to sending samples. Outside the
forest pathology research: Victoria area, the Regional Pathologist of the B.C. Ministry
of Forests may also be contacted for disease collection
• Culturing - the suspected pathogen should be obtained in a slips, and a referral.
pure, artificial culture, where possible.
In order to make a proper diagnosis, forest pathologists
• Pathogenicity study - according to Kochs’ Postulates (see require accurate field collection information, and a viable,
below), the organism should be proven to be the cause of representative collection of diseased material. Minimal data
an infectious disease. and specimen collection standards requested by all plant
pathologists are described below.
• Life cycle - all spore states should be identified and studied
and related to host range and phenology. Collection data must include the following:
1. date and location of collection
• Conditions for infection - the general physiology and 2. species, age, and condition of the host, including any
requirements for spore germination, penetration, and so on symptoms not present in the material collected
should be elucidated. 3. complete name, address and telephone number (as
well as FACs number and email address, if available)
Rules of Proof (Koch’s Postulates) of the collector
4. observations and other comments (e.g., stand
1. Show constant association of the organism with the treatments)
disease.
2. Isolate the organism in culture from the diseased plant. Samples should be representative of the disease
3. Inoculate a healthy plant from the culture and produce symptoms and big enough to be dissected or cultured if
the same disease. necessary. Any fungus fruit bodies present, such as conks
4. Re-isolate the same organism from inoculated plants. or mushrooms, should also be included, but the latter
should be packaged in such a way that they are not
damaged in transit by accompanying wood samples.
Samples should be wrapped in paper in a protective
container, but not in plastic bags which encourage mold
growth and deterioration. Diseased foliage should be
Information available on the World Wide Web: pressed between sheets of newspaper before being
Common Tree Diseases of B.C. shipped. Samples to be used for culturing should be
http://www.pfc.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/diseases/CTD/index_e.html wrapped in paper towels and then placed in plastic bags if
there is a danger of them drying out, but they must be
Specimen collection: shipped quickly, or they will become contaminated with
http://www.pfc.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/biodiversity/herbarium surface bacteria and molds. Wood decay samples should
be large enough to split with an axe, and preferably should
contain areas with both early and advanced signs of decay.

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Selected references Bacterium, pl. Bacteria: one-celled prokaryotic microorganisms
which have no chlorophyll but have cell walls, and multiply by
simple division.
Allen, E.; Morrison, D.; Wallis, G. 1996. Common tree Basidium, pl. Basidia: a microscopic spore-bearing structure
diseases of British Columbia. Canadian Forest Service, composed of one or several cells which typically produces four
Pacific Forestry Centre. 178 p. basidiospores externally on the surface.
Boyce, J.S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, Basidiomycetes: a biological grouping of fungi (mushrooms,
bracket fungi, and rusts) characterized by production of sexual
New York, N.Y. 572 p.
spores on a basidium.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Basidiospores: sexual spores produced on a basidium.
Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forestry Research Biological control: the control of a pest by other living organisms
Centre, Information Report BC-X-222. 190 p. such as viruses, fungi, bacteria or insects.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Canadian Blight: sudden drying and browning involving whole organs such
Forestry Service, Pacific Forestry Research Centre, as fruits, blossoms, leaves, twigs, and shoots.
Blue sapwood stain: a deep-seated blue (sometimes more
Information Report BC-X-265. 159 p. blackish or gray) discoloration confined mostly to sapwood,
Hiratsuka, Y.; Langor, D.W.; Crane, P.E. 1995. A field guide caused by fungi.
to forest insects and diseases of the prairie provinces. Brown cubical rot: a wood decay in which the causal fungi
Canadian Forest Service, Northwest Region, Northern decompose more cellulose than lignin. The brittle, brown, lignin-
Forestry Centre, Special Report 3. 297 p. rich residue breaks into cubes in the advanced stage of decay.
Callus: host tissue that develops at the margins of wounds or
Holliday, P. 1989. A dictionary of plant pathology. University cankers.
Press, Cambridge. 369 p. Cambium: the actively dividing layer of cells that lies between
Malhotra, S.S.; Blauel, R.A. 1980. Diagnosis of air pollutant xylem and phloem tissues in higher plants.
and natural stress symptoms on forest vegetation in Canker: an area of diseased tissue, often sunken, on a living
western Canada. Canadian Forestry Service, Northern stem or branch.
Canker blight: cankers that develop for one season only.
Forest Research Centre, Information Report NOR-X-
Canker rot: cankers that extend to underlying wood, and cause
228. 84 p. its decay.
Sinclair, W.A.; Lyon, H.H.; Johnson, W.T. 1987. Diseases of Chlorosis: yellowing of normally green tissue owing to subnormal
trees and shrubs. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, N.Y. 574 chlorophyll content.
p. Conidiophore: a specialized hypha that bears conidia.
Whitney, R.D.; Hunt, R.S.; Munro, J.A. 1983. Impact and Conidium, pl. Conidia: an asexual spore usually formed on a
specialized hypha (conidiophore) or in a pycnidium.
control of forest disease in Canada. For. Chron. Conk: a term often used to describe fungus fruit bodies occurring
59:223-228. on wood (i.e. a polypore).
Ziller, W.G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Dep. Damping-off: disease of seedlings associated with withering and
Environ., Can. For. Serv. Publ. No. 1329. 272 p. decay of roots and stem.
Decay: the process by which sound plant tissue (i.e. wood) is
degraded by the action of fungi and other micro-organisms.
A short glossary of forest disease terms Deuteromycetes: see Mitosporic Fungi.
Diffuse cankers: cankers containing little or no callus.
Aecial host: the host on which the spermagonial and aecial Dioecious: unisexual, with the male and female elements in
states of rusts develop. different individuals.
Aecial state: the second spore stage in the life cycle of rust fungi Dwarf mistletoes: flowering plants. (Arceuthobium spp.) parasitic
producing aeciospores. on conifers, often associated with cankers and witches brooms.
Aeciospore: rust spore formed in an aecium. Fruit body: a fungus structure specialized for producing spores,
Aecium, pl. Aecia: a cup or tube-like fungal structure which for example, conk, mushroom, apothecium and pycnidium.
produces chains of aeciospores. Fungus, pl. Fungi: a kingdom of parasitic, saprophytic, or
Aerial shoot: stem-like portion of dwarf mistletoe plant outside symbiotic eukaryotic organisms made of cellular filaments
the host bark. Its primary function is reproduction. known as hyphae. Fungi feed by absorption and reproduce by
Alternate host: term used to describe other plant species which forming spores.
can be host to the same pathogen. When used with respect to Gall: abnormal swelling of host tissue.
rusts, it usually refers to host(s) supporting different (i.e. aecial Heart rot: decay characteristically confined to the heartwood.
vs telial) spore stages. Heartwood: the inner layers of wood which, in the growing tree,
Anamorph: the asexual (conidial) form of a fungus. contain only a few living cells.
Apothecium, pl. Apothecia: cup-like fruit body of ascomycetes Heteroecious: requiring two unrelated host plants to complete its
Ascomycetes: a biological grouping of fungi (the sac fungi) life cycle (cf. autoecious; host-alternating).
typified by the ascus within which typically eight ascospores are Host: a living organism harboring a parasite.
produced Host-alternating: requiring the production of spore states on two
different host species, to complete the life cycle of a
Ascospore: sexual spore produced in an ascus.
heteroecious rust (cf heteroecious).
Ascus, pl. Asci: a microscopic sac-like structure containing
Hymenium: the spore-bearing layer of a fungus fruit body.
ascospores.
Hymenomycetes: a biological grouping of basidiomycetes that
Asexual reproduction: reproduction not involving nuclear fusion.
produce spores from a hymenium of exposed basidia, which are
Asexual state: see anamorph.
often borne on specialized structures such as gills or pores.
Autoecious: rusts completing the life cycle on one host (cf.
These fungi are usually large and fleshy, such as mushrooms
heteroecious).
and conks.

14
Hyperparasite: an organism that is parasitic on another parasite. Rhizomorph: a thread or cord-like structure made up of hyphae,
Hyperplasia: plant tissue enlargement, such as brooming or frequently produced by Armillaria spp.
galls, resulting from excessive cell division. Saprophyte: an organism using dead organic material as food
Hypertrophy: symptoms of excessive growth, resulting from and commonly causing its decay.
abnormal enlargement of plant tissue. Sap rot: a rot occurring in sapwood.
Hypha, pl. Hyphae: the basic filamentous vegetative cells of a Sapwood: the outer portion of a woody stem, containing the
fungus (cf. mycelium). functional xylem, living cells, and food reserves.
Hypodermataceae: a group of ascomycetes, some of which Sclerotium, pl. Sclerotia: a hard vegetative mass of fungus
cause needle cast in conifers. tissue, resistant to unfavorable conditions.
Immunity: having qualities that do not permit infection by a given Secondary fungus: a weak parasite or saprophyte which usually
pathogen. infects only predisposed, weakened, or dead hosts.
Imperfect state: see anamorph (syn. asexual state). Secondary inoculum: inoculum produced during the growing
Infection court: the place on the host where a pathogen initiates season (contrast with primary inoculum).
infection. Septum, pl. Septa: the cross wall in a hypha.
Inoculum: infectious material of a pathogen. Sexual reproduction: reproduction involving the union of two
Lesion: an area of diseased tissue. nuclei.
Mitosporic fungi – (formerly known as Deuteromycetes) an Sexual state: see teleomorph.
artificial grouping of conidial fungi whose teleomorphs have not Sign: a visible portion of a pathogen on a diseased host, such as
been found or are lacking. The majority are closely related to spore masses, mycelia, and fruit body.
anamorphs of ascomycetes (molds), and a few are more closely Spermagonial state: state in the life cycle of rusts in which
aligned to the basidiomycetes. spermatia are exuded in a sweet liquid produced from small
Mycelium, pl. Mycelia: a mass of fungus hyphae. flask-shaped fruit bodies called spermagonia.
Mycelial fan: a typically fan-like mass of hyphae as in Armillaria Spermatia - spores produced by spermagonia.
root rot. Sporangium, pl. Sporangia: an organism producing endogenous
Mycoplasma: similar to bacteria, but smaller and lacking cell asexual spores.
walls, and often causing virus-like symptoms. Spore: a microscopic fungus propagule, commonly one-celled,
Mycorrhiza, pl. Mycorrhizae: a symbiotic association of a fungus but may consist of several cells. Its reproductive function is
with the root of a tree. analagous to a seed.
Necrosis: death of cells or tissues. Stramenopile: a major group of organisms which includes many
Necrotic symptoms: symptoms (usually discoloration) produced of the protists, brown algae, diatoms, and Oomycetes, and is
by the death of plant cells. characterized by tripartite tubular hairs
Needle blight: fungal disease affecting conifer needles of any Symptom: any reaction of a host to disease.
age. Systemic infection: a pathogenic infection that has spread
Needle cast: a disease resulting in the premature dropping of the internally through its host.
needles in coniferous trees. It is frequently associated with Target canker: a canker surrounded with concentric rings of
infection by certain fungi (Hypodermataceae), but is also callus.
caused by non-infectious diseases, usually on needles of Teleomorph: the sexual (i.e. ascospore or basidiospore) form of
current year. a fungus.
Obligate parasite: an organism that lives only on, and obtains Telial host: the host on which the uredinial, telial, and basidial
nutrients from, living host tissue. states of rusts develop.
Oomycetes: a class of microscopic soil and water organisms Telium, pl. Telia: a fungal (rust) structure producing teliospores.
(Stramenopiles) that have a mobile, swimming spore stage Teliospore: the rust spore that germinates to produce basidia.
(zoospore) and a thick-walled sexual spore (oospore). Uredinium pl. Uredinia: fungal (rust) structure producing
Parasite: an organism living on or in, and obtaining its nutrients urediniospores.
from, another living organism. Urediniomycetes: a group of parasitic basidiomycetes (rust
Pathogen: a living organism that is capable of causing disease. fungi) that often produce rusty spore masses on their host.
Perfect state: see teleomorph. Several spore states and host alternation also characterize
Periderm: protective layer of bark. these fungi.
Perithecium, pl. Perithecia: flask-like fruit body of ascomycetes, Urediniospores: rust spores produced several times over the
containing asci. growing season and capable of re-infecting the same host.
Phenology: the science of the relations between climate Vegetative state (of a fungus): a growing or food-absorbing
(seasons) and biological phenomena such as bud break and mycelial state that precedes the production of spores.
flowering. White rot: a wood decay in which the causal fungi break down
Phellogen: cork cambium giving rise to the outer bark or both cellulose and lignin. Advanced decay residue is white.
periderm. Witches’ broom: the dense, often malformed and excessive
Phloem: inner bark tissue which functions in the transport of branching of branches or tree crowns caused by pathogens
substances produced in the leaves. (rusts, dwarf mistletoes) or abiotic agents.
Photosynthesis: the production of nutrients in green plants from Xylem: the principal strengthening and water-conducting tissue of
carbon dioxide and water. The energy for this process is the stems, roots, and leaves of plants; wood.
obtained from sunlight acting on chlorophyll. Zoospore: mobile swimming spore of an oomycete.
Pycnidium, pl. Pycnidia: a flask-like fungal fruit body, lined inside
with conidiophores, and producing conidia (asexual spores).
Red heartwood stain: a pronounced reddish discoloration
induced by fungi in the heartwood of conifers.
Resinosis: an abnormal flow of resin or pitch from conifers.
Resistance: ability of an organism to suppress or retard the
activity of a pathogen.

15
 The Pacific Forestry Centre is one of five research centres of the Canadian Forest
Service, Natural Resources Canada. Situated in Victoria the Pacific Forestry Centre
cooperates with other government agencies, the forestry industry, and educational
institutions to promote the wise management of Canada’s forest resources. The
Pacific Forestry Centre undertakes research in response to the needs of the various
managers of the forest resource. The results of this research are distributed in the
form of scientific and technical reports and other publications.

Additional Information

Additional copies of this and other Forest Pest Leaflets, as well as

additional scientific details and information about identification services, are available by writing to:

Natural Resources Canada

Candian Forest Service
Pacific Forestry Centre
506 West Burnside Road
Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

Phone (250) 363-0600

On-line information is available at: http://www.pfc.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca

© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2001

Natural Resources Ressources naturelles

Canada Canada
Canadian Forest Service canadien
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