LESSON 3

EARTH AND THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS

SYSTEM - A set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a unified whole.
Example: Ecosystem
The Earth system is essentially a CLOSED SYSTEM. A closed system is a system in which
there is only an exchange of heat or energy and no exchange of matter.

THE FOUR SUBSYTEMS OF THE EARTH

1. BIOSPHERE-
 Bio is a Greek root that means life and
sphaira which means globe or ball.

 It is the set of all life forms on Earth.
 It covers all ecosystems- from the soil to
the rainforest, from mangroves to coral
reefs and from the plankton-rich surface to
the deep sea.
 Organisms interact with the other spheres
to survive.

2. HYDROSPHERE-
 Hydro is a Greek root which means water.
 It is composed of all the water on Earth in
any form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice.
 About 70% of the Earth is covered with
liquid water and much of it is in the form of
ocean water.
 Only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh; two-thirds
are in the form of ice, and the remaining
one-third is present in streams, lake and
groundwater.
 The water on Earth is constantly moving. It
moves through the ocean in currents.
 Water Cycle
3. ATMOSPHERE
 Atmos is a Greek root which means gas.
 It makes up all the gases on Earth.
 The present atmosphere is composed of
78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.9% Argon
and trace amount of other gases.
 LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE
o The exosphere is the farthest
layer. It extends to about 10 000
km above the Earth's surface.
o The thermosphere is found 85 to
600 km above the Earth's surface.
It has charged particles that are
affected by the Earth's magnetic
field.
o The mesosphere extends from 50
to 85 km above the Earth's surface.
It protects the Earth from the
impact of space debris.
o The stratosphere is found 14.5 to
50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer that protects the Earth from
the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this layer.
o The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the
lowest layer where the weather forms.

4. GEOSPHERE
 Geo is a Greek root which means ground. 
 It includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals
present in the crust to the core of the Earth.
 LAYERS OF THE EARTH
o CRUST is the outermost layer of the
geosphere. It is made mostly of silicate
materials.
Oceanic crust that lies beneath the
oceanic floors is about 5 to 10 km thick.
Continental crust that makes up the
continents is about 15 to 70 km thick.
o MANTLE is made mostly of silicate
rocks rich in magnesium and iron. It is about 2900 km thick.
o The core, which has a radius of 3400 km, is the innermost layer of the Earth. It
is made up of iron and nickel.
LESSON 4
Minerals are the building blocks/main ingredients of rocks. Mineral is a naturally occurring,
inorganic, solid material and has a definite chemical composition.

Example of Minerals are Quartz, Feldspar, Mica and many more.

There are two identifications of minerals. The physical properties and chemical properties.

The physical properties of minerals that can be tested are: Color, Streak, hardness, cleavage
and fracture.

• Color - Most minerals have distinctive/unique color that can be used for identification.
Unfortunately, the color alone is not a reliable as a single identifying properties of
minerals. It is risky to use the color in identification of minerals. The color may vary due
to absorption of light rays.

• Streak - It is the color of the mineral in its powdered form. Since color is not reliable for
identification, they used the powder of the mineral.

• Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or scratches.

Minerals may be described depending to a standard scale known as the MOH’S SCALE
OF HARDNESS invented by the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. The Mohs
hardness of a mineral is determined by observing whether its surface is scratched by a
substance of known or defined hardness. To give numerical values to this physical
property, minerals are ranked along the Mohs scale, which is composed of 10 minerals
that have been given arbitrary hardness values.

Mohs hardness scale and observations on hardness of some additional materials

Mohs
mineral other materials observations on the minerals
hardness

Source: Modified from C. Klein, Minerals and Rocks: Exercises in Crystallography,

Mineralogy, and Hand Specimen Petrology. Copyright 1989 John Wiley & Sons. Reprinted by
permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

very easily scratched by the fingernail;

talc 1
has a greasy feel

gypsum 2 ~2.2 fingernail can be scratched by the fingernail

 Mohs hardness scale and observations on hardness of some additional materials

Mohs
mineral other materials observations on the minerals
hardness

~3.2 copper very easily scratched with a knife and

calcite 3
penny just scratched with a copper coin

very easily scratched with a knife but not

fluorite 4
as easily as calcite

apatite 5 ~5.1 pocketknife scratched with a knife with difficulty

~5.5 glass plate

~6.5 steel cannot be scratched with a knife, but

orthoclase 6
needle scratches glass with difficulty

quartz 7 ~7.0 streak plate scratches glass easily

topaz 8 scratches glass very easily

corundum 9 cuts glass

diamond 10 used as a glass cutter

• Cleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along flat surfaces. It is a
property of minerals to break in smooth surfaces or lines, and with patterns. It can be
change in one, two or three directions.

• FRACTURE refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the mineral
breaks into forms other than flat surfaces. There are two types of fracture, the irregular at
conchoidal

The Chemical Properties of Minerals

Mineralogists test minerals for their chemical properties and group them according to their
abundant compounds. These are the chemical property of minerals: the Solubility, the Melting
point and the crystallographic techniques. Solubility and melting point are chemical properties
commonly used to describe a mineral.

 Solubility refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified

temperature. For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is soluble
 in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases the loosely-bound potassium
ions in the mineral.

 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals
composed of atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high melting
points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C
 Crystallographic techniques - The composition and crystal structure of minerals can be
analyzed through chemical and instrumental analysis such as X-ray diffraction which are
performed to determine the crystal structure of the mineral.

The common rock- forming mineral

These are the most abundant Minerals in Earth’s crust. They are the minerals present at the
time of a rock’s formation and important minerals in determining the rocks. The quartz, feldspar,
mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine.

 QUARTZ- It is a glassy-looking hard substance with white streaks. Despite its

hardness, with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and
transparent. Colored varieties of quartz are due to elemental impurities built into its
lattice. The grains of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.

 FELDSPAR- It is quite hard with a Mohs hardness of 6. It is a light-colored material,

usually white, but they can have lighter shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster.
In rocks, feldspar forms rectangular crystals that break along flat faces.

 MICA- is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most
common examples are clear muscovite and black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs
hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. It is easily identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing
it to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for the flashes of light in rocks such as
granite and slate. 

 PYROXENE- It has a glassy luster with streaks of white, light green, or light brown. It
is generally black in color and has stubby prismatic crystals. Its key feature is its two
cleavages at around 90°.
 AMPHIBOLE- has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6.
Hornblende is the most common amphibole. It has a glassy luster and an opaque
characteristic. Its crystals are very long and very thin.

 OLIVINE- It is known for its distinct olive-green color and commonly used in the
gemstone industry as peridot. It is a glassy looking and transparent substance that is
almost as hard as quartz. Its crystals have a granular shape.
 Lesson 5
Rock is a natural substances consisting of aggregate/ combined minerals clumped together
with other materials through natural processes. A rock can be composed of a single mineral or
more commonly composed of an aggregate of two or more minerals. Rocks exhibit different
properties. Regarding to its color, rocks may be dark, light, reddish, gray, brown, yellow or even
black. Rocks may differ in texture: some are fine, others are rough. Some are glossy in
appearance and smooth to touch. Most rocks are hard, others are brittle.

Petrology- deals with the study of the formation, composition and

classification of rocks. And geologist identified and classified the rocks.
How did geologist identify and classify rocks?
Rocks are classified on the basis of the mode of formation and the physical and chemical
properties are inherent on how the rocks are formed. Rocks can be divided into three types
depending on how they are formed. And these are the three types of rocks.
Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Let’s take a look in these different
types of rocks.
1. Igneous rock –“Ignis” from Latin word means fire.
Igneous rocks are crystallized from molten volcanic materials called magma or lava that
came from within Earth. Igneous rocks formed from either magma or lava. When molten
material rises from the asthenosphere or at the base of the crust through volcanoes or
any cracks and fissures on Earth's surface it is called magma. And when it reaches the
surface of the Earth, the molten volcanic material is called lava.
The Igneous Rocks are important because it contain fossils that are evidences of
geologic past coal, petroleum and natural gas. These are the major energy source of
iron, aluminum and manganese that used in the construction industry.
There are two types of Igneous Rock (The Extrusive and Intrusive Igneous Rock)
• Extrusive:
• Rocks that are formed from cooled lava (when it reaches the surface of the Earth
or above the ground). They cooled very quickly, therefore formed small crystals.
These are some examples of Extrusive Igneous Rock: Obsidian, Pumice,
Rhyolite, Andesite, Basalt, and Scoria.
• Intrusive:
• Rocks that are from cooled magma or below ground. They cooled very slowly,
therefore the formation of crystals are large. These are some examples of
Intrusive Igneous Rock: Pegmatite, Granite, Diorite and Gabbro.

2. Sedimentary rock. - from the root word sediments which mean “remaining particles”
these are rocks that have formed from the deposition of different materials on Earth's
 surface. They come from pre-existing rocks or pieces of dead organisms that have been
“lithified” or cemented by natural processes.
There are two major groups of Sedimentary Rock: The clastic and Non-clastic.
CLASTIC:
The fragments of pre-existing rocks or minerals. These are the remaining particles of different
rocks that cemented together to form another type of rock. Examples are Breccia,
Conglomerate and Sandstone.

NON-CLASTIC:
Occur when minerals are precipitated directly from water, or are concentrated by organic matter
/ life. These are the remaining particles mixed with organic matter or particles of dead
organisms. Examples are Limestones, Dolostone and Chalk.

3. Metarmophic rock.
These are rocks that have been modified and exposed by heat, pressure, and chemical
processes, usually while buried deep below Earth's surface. Because of this exposure, some of
the minerals in these rocks undergo chemical and physical changes.
Two types of Metamorphic Rock: Foliated and Non-Foliated
FOLIATED:
- have a layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat
and directed pressure. Examples are Gneiss, slate, Schist, Phyllite
NON-FOLIATED:
- do not have a layered or banded appearance. Examples are Marble, Quartzite and
hornfels.

Why are there different types of rocks? And how the geologic processes occurring both
underneath, and on the Earth’s surface can change a rock from one type or another?
The answer is through the Rock Cycle.
The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into
metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock.
Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.
And this is the process of rock cycle.
Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals (this process is called cooling).
Magma is a hot liquid made of melted minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they cool.
Igneous rock can form underground, where the magma cools slowly. Or, igneous rock can form
above ground, where the magma cools quickly.
When it discharge out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Yes, the same liquid rock
matter that you see coming out of volcanoes.
On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces
to another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to
make a layer. (The process of weathering and erosion occur) The layer can be buried under
other layers of sediments. After a long time, sedimentation and compaction will involve where
the sediments can be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock
can become sedimentary rock.
All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come from? Inside the Earth, there is heat from
pressure (try to push your hands together very hard and feel the heat). There is heat from
friction (try to rub your hands together and feel the heat).Did you feel the heat? There is also
heat from radioactive decay (the process that gives us nuclear power plants that make
electricity).
So, what does the heat do to the rock? It bakes the rock.
Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it has crystals already, it forms
larger crystals. Because this rock changes, it is called metamorphic. Remember that a
caterpillar changes to become a butterfly. That change is called metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis can occur in rock when they are heated to 300 to 700 degrees Celsius.
When Earth's tectonic plates move around, they produce heat. When they collide, they build
mountains and metamorphose (met-ah-MORE-foes) the rock.
The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up and washed
away by streams. New sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary rock. The
rock cycle never stops.