AP World History

Survival Guide

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Table of Contents

Pages
AP World History Overview 3–7

The AP Exam 3

World Regions 4–5

Five Course Themes 6

Four Historical Thinking Skills 7

Essays Overview 8 - 15

Document-based Question (DBQ) 8 – 12

Change and Continuity over Time (CCOT) 13 – 15

Comparative Essay 16 – 18

Released Free Response Questions 19 – 20

AP Curriculum Framework 21 – 38

Period 1 (Up to 600 B.C.E.)—5% 21 – 22

Period 2 (600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E.)—15% 23 – 25

Period 3 (600 to 1450)—20% 26 – 28

Period 4 (1450 to 1750)—20% 29 – 31

Period 5 (1750 to 1900)—20% 32 – 35

Period 6 (1900 to the present)—20% 36 – 38

Help with Some Confusing Subjects 39 – 43

Chinese Dynasties 39

Political, Economic, and Social Systems 40

Religions 41

Primary Sources 42

“Must Know” Years 43

- Many of the guidelines in this study packet are adapted from the AP World History Course Description,
developed by College Board.

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The AP Exam

Purchasing and taking the AP World History exam are requirements of the course. This year, the AP World History
exam will be administered on: ___________________________________________

Format

I. Multiple Choice
a. You will have 55 minutes to answer 70 Questions.
b. Each question has options A, B, C, and D.
c. Questions are divided evenly between the five course themes (20% each) and six periods.
d. Each questions addresses one of the four historical thinking skills.
e. You should answer ALL 70 questions, even if you have to guess. There are no points off for wrong
answers.
II. Free-Response Questions (FRQ’s)
a. Timing: Section II will begin with a ten minute reading period, followed by a 120 minute (2 hour)
writing period, for a total of 2 hours and 10 minutes. During this section, students may distribute
their time as they choose between the three questions; however, the proctor will issue time
warnings suggesting you move on to the next question.
b. Part A: Document-Based Question
i. Suggested planning and writing time= 50 minutes
ii. This essay question tests your ability to formulate and support an answer using
documentary evidence. You will read, analyze, and group a selection of 7-10 primary
source documents to craft and support a historical argument. You must use ALL the
documents.
c. Part B: Change and Continuity over Time Question
i. Suggested planning and writing time= 40 minutes
ii. This essay question deals specifically with analysis of changes and continuities over time
and covers at least one of the periods in the concept outline. You should answer the
question using specific evidence.
d. Part C: Comparative Question
i. Suggested planning and writing time= 40 minutes
ii. The comparative essay focuses on developments across at least TWO regions or societies.
It relates to one of the five major themes in the course (ex: state building, economic
systems) and requires analysis of the reasons for identified similarities and differences.
e. Essay Scoring: Students can earn a maximum of 9 points (7 basic core plus two expanded) on each
essay, for a maximum essay score of 27 points.
III. Exam Scoring
a. Each Section is given equal weight and then added together for a cumulative raw score, which
then falls into one of five possible ranges. 5= Extremely well-qualified; 4= Well-Qualified, 3=
Qualified, 2= Possibly Qualified, 1= No Recommendation.
b. Scores of 3, 4, and 5 are considered “passing” or “qualifying” scores and may earn students
college credit.

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4
 Regions Overview
Region Past Major States and Empires Current Nations (Examples)
North America Cahokia, Iroquois Confederation United States, Canada
British and French colonization

Latin America and the Olmec, Chavin, Maya, Aztec, Inca Mexico, Cuba, Brazil, Venezuela,
Caribbean Spanish and Portuguese colonization Columbia, Argentina

Western Europe Roman Empire, Holy Roman Empire United Kingdom, France, Germany,
Napoleonic Empire Italy, Spain, Portugal

Eastern Europe & Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary,
Russia Kievan Rus, Mongols, Soviet Union Bulgaria

South Asia Indus Valley, Mauryan and Gupta India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Empires, Delhi sultanate, Mughal Sri Lanka
Empire, British India
East Asia Chinese Dynasties, Korean kingdoms, China, Taiwan, Japan
Tokugawa Japan, Imperial Japan North Korea, South Korea

Southeast Asia Kingdom of Srivijaya, city-states Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand,

(Malacca), Dutch Indonesia Cambodia, Vietnam, Burma

Central Asia Mongol Empire Mongolia

The Middle East Roman Empire, Abbasid & Umayyad Egypt, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Saudi
Caliphates, Ottoman Empire Arabia, Israel

North Africa Carthage, Roman Empire, Ottoman Libya, Algeria, Tunisia

Empire, Caliphates, French Algeria

Sub-Saharan Africa
West Africa Ghana, Mali, Songhay Ghana, Nigeria
British & French colonization

East Africa Axum, Kingdom of Ethiopia, Swahili Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia

city-states; European colonization

Central Africa Great Zimbabwe, Belgian Congo Democratic Republic of Congo,

Rwanda

Southern Africa Zulu Kingdom, European colonization South Africa

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COURSE THEMES

Course Acronym= SPICE

- Social (Theme 5)
- Political (Theme 3)
- Interaction with the Environment (Theme 1)
- Cultural (Theme 2)
- Economic (Theme 4)

Theme #1: Human Interaction with the Environment (Geography)

- Interaction between humans and the environment

- Demography and disease
- Migration
- Patterns of settlement
- Technology

Theme #2: Development and interaction of cultures

- Religions
- Belief systems, philosophies, and ideologies
- Science and technology
- The arts and architecture

Theme #3: State-building, expansion, and conflict

- Political structures and forms of governance

- Empires
- Nations and nationalism
- Revolts and revolutions
- Regional, transregional, and global structures and organizations

Theme #4: Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems

- Agricultural and pastoral production

- Trade and commerce
- Labor systems
- Industrialization
- Capitalism and socialism

Theme #5: Development and transformation of social structures

- Gender roles and relations

- Family and kinship
- Racial and ethnic constructions
- Social and economic classes

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Four Historical Thinking Skills
1. Crafting Historical Arguments from Historical Evidence:
a. Historical Argumentation: Historical thinking involves the ability to define and frame a
question about the past and to address that question through the construction of an
argument. A plausible and persuasive argument requires a clear, comprehensive and
analytical thesis.
b. Appropriate Use of Relevant Historical Evidence: Arguments must be supported by
relevant historical evidence — not simply evidence that supports a preferred or
preconceived position. Additionally, argumentation involves the capacity to describe,
analyze, and evaluate the arguments of others in light of available evidence.

2. Chronological Reasoning
a. Historical Causation: Historical thinking involves the ability to identify, analyze, and
evaluate the relationships between multiple historical causes and effects, distinguishing
between those that are long-term and proximate, and among coincidence, causation, and
correlation.
b. Patterns of Continuity and Change over Time: Historical thinking involves the ability to
recognize, analyze, and evaluate the dynamics of historical continuity and change over
periods of time of varying length, as well as relating these patterns to larger historical
processes or themes.
a. Periodization: Historical thinking involves the ability to describe, analyze, evaluate, and
construct models of historical periodization that historians use to categorize events into
discrete blocks and to identify turning points, recognizing that the choice of specific dates
privileges one narrative, region or group over another narrative, region or group; therefore,
changing the periodization can change a historical narrative.

3. Comparison and Contextualization

a. Comparison: Historical thinking involves the ability to describe, compare, and evaluate
multiple historical developments within one society, one or more developments across or
between different societies, and in various chronological and geographical contexts.
b. Contextualization: Historical thinking involves the ability to connect historical
developments to specific circumstances of time and place, and to broader regional,
national, or global processes.

4. Historical Interpretation and Synthesis

a. Interpretation: Historical thinking involves the ability to describe, analyze, evaluate, and
create diverse interpretations of the past — as revealed through primary and secondary
historical sources — through analysis of evidence, reasoning, contexts, points of view,
and frames of reference.
b. Synthesis: Historical thinking involves the ability to arrive at meaningful and persuasive
understandings of the past by applying all of the other historical thinking skills, by drawing
appropriately on ideas from different fields of inquiry or disciplines and by creatively fusing
disparate, relevant (and perhaps contradictory) evidence from primary sources and
secondary works. Additionally, synthesis may involve applying insights about the past to
other historical contexts or circumstances, including the present.

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 How to Write a Document-Based Question (DBQ)

Overview: The primary purpose of the document-based essay question is not to test students’ prior
knowledge of subject matter but rather to evaluate their ability to formulate and support an answer from
documentary evidence. The DBQ is an exercise in crafting historical arguments from historical evidence.
It requires that students first read and analyze the documents individually, contextualize them based on
their informed analysis of the documentary evidence, and then plan and construct an appropriate and
synthetic essay in response to the question. The student’s answer must group documents in such a way
that it demonstrates analysis of their different contents and contexts. A clear thesis statement and an
analysis of the documents that fully address the question are required.

Generic Core-Scoring Guide for AP World History Document-Based Question

Basic Core Points Expanded Core
1. Has acceptable thesis 1 Examples:
2. Addresses all documents and 1 • Has a clear, analytical, & comprehensive
demonstrates understanding of all or all but thesis.
one. • Shows careful and insightful analysis of the
3. Supports thesis with appropriate 2 documents.
evidence from all or all but one doc. • Uses documents persuasively as evidence.
(Supports thesis with appropriate (1) • Analyzes point of view in most or all
evidence from all but two documents) documents.
4. Analyzes point of view in at least two 1 • Analyzes the documents in additional
documents. ways—groupings, comparisons, syntheses.
5. Analyzes documents by grouping them 1 • Brings in relevant “outside” historical
in 2 or 3 ways, depending on question. content.
6. Identifies and explains the need for one 1 • Explains why additional types of
type of appropriate additional document document(s) or sources are needed.
or source.
Subtotal 7 Subtotal 2
Total 9

I. Organization

1st Paragraph: 1-2 sentences of introduction; historical background on topic

Thesis Thesis statement (A, B, and C)
nd
2 Paragraph: Topic Sentence A – Identify group
Group A Supporting Evidence from documents in this category
* Analyze Point of view/ Additional Document
3rd Paragraph: Topic Sentence B—Identify group
Group B Supporting Evidence from documents in this category
* Analyze Point of view/ Additional Document
4th Paragraph: Topic Sentence C – Identify group
Group C Supporting Evidence from documents in this category
* Analyze Point of view/ Additional Document
5th Paragraph: Restate Thesis
Conclusion Additional Document/POV (if not addressed in body)
Relevant outside historical information; importance of topic

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II. Strategy
1. Read the question carefully until you understand it. What exactly are you being asked to analyze?
Circle or rewrite.
2. Read over the documents to get a general sense of their meaning, as it relates to the question.
Pay attention to both content (what is being said) and context (what additional information helps
understand the content).
3. Take notes on each document in the margins of your booklet. In addition to basic meaning,
underline any words or phrases that illustrate point of view. Remember to read the source line
and assess its meaning. Do not spend too much time taking detailed notes!
4. Group the documents into three categories. Each should have a unifying theme that relates to the
question. For example, if the question asks you to assess “causes,” each group should be a
specific cause.
5. Use your groups to write your thesis statement answering the question. Reread the question, and
then your thesis. Does your thesis specifically answer the question?
6. Write your essay using the suggested organization.
7. Read over and revise your essay as necessary. Have you addressed all components of rubric?

III. Grouping
1. Grouping is often considered the hardest step in the writing process, and it is a crucial one.
2. It only takes two documents to be a group, and the groups do not have to be of uniform size.
Also, the same document can be used in more than one group. For example, one document
might show both an attempt to cure the disease and limit economic activity.
3. The documents in a group should not just be presented one after another in a list-like fashion, but
woven together to form an argument. Emphasize areas of agreement with words like “likewise”
and “also,” and disagreement with transitions like “on the other hand” or “conversely.”

IV. Thesis
1. Your thesis must be in the first paragraph. It should answer the question and identify the three
parts of your argument (groups), which will correspond with your three body paragraphs
2. Sample Formula: (Restate first part of question) ___A___, ___B___, and ___C___.
3. Sample Thesis: Question—Analyze European responses to the bubonic plague. Europeans
responded to the bubonic plague by limiting economic activity, trying to cure the disease, and
turning to religion for guidance.

V. Supporting thesis with evidence

1. You must use all of the documents.
2. Specific mention of individual documents should always occur within the framework of the overall
topic, serving to substantiate and illustrate points made in the essay. In no case should
documents simply be cited and summarized in a list; reference to the documents must always be
closely tied to the essay question. EXPLAIN how the evidence supports your thesis, don’t just
summarize.
a. Wrong: Document 1 is a letter from a teacher in the Netherlands.
b. Right: As a result of the bubonic plague, many Europeans limited their economic activity
by staying at home. For example, one Dutch teacher claims in a letter that many of his
students have either died or dropped out (Doc 1). He speculates that some have been
discouraged from enrolling at all due to fear of the disease.
c. Notice the difference? The first example involves summarizing the documents, while in the
second the documents are used as evidence. Remember, you are not writing about the
documents. You are answering the question using the documents. The documents are
simply the materials you are using to build your argument.
3. Students should cite documents by naming the author, title, and/or document number. Example:
Lisabetta Centinni, an Italian housewife, claims in her diary that a relic of a Christian saint was
able to save her dying husband. This illustrates how some Europeans turned to their faith for
answers (Doc 2).
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VI. Point of view
1. Historians need to know that historical sources are NOT statements of fact. Diaries, letters,
brochures, pamphlets, books, and even charts and graphs are all created by a person with a
specific perspective and goal in mind. By discussing point of view, students demonstrate their
understanding of the historical record.
2. Students should avoid simply stating that a document is “biased.” Instead, use SOAPSTONE!!!
a. Speaker: Explain how the characteristics of the author, including his or her gender,
occupation, class, religion, nationality, political position, or ethnic identity, influences the
views presented in the document. Ex: As a Catholic priest, it is Las Casas’ job to defend
and speak up for all levels of society, not to make money. Therefore, he is more likely to
sympathize with the Native Americans laboring in the mines, unlike the merchants who
view them as cheap labor to be exploited.
b. Occasion: What immediate event inspired the creation of the document? In particular,
look at the year when assessing occasion.
c. Audience: To whom is the speaker addressing his arguments? Is he/she writing to
someone in a position of authority, a subordinate, or a foreign leader? Ex: Asantewa
addresses the men of her tribe in an impassioned speech. She claims that if the men will
not fight as in the days of old, then the women will fight the white men instead. However,
Asantewa is likely attempting to inspire the men to action by insulting their bravery, rather
than actually calling for the women to fight instead.
d. Purpose: What is the author’s purpose in coming forward with this document at this time?
Is it to persuade someone to pursue a certain course, to offer encouragement, to justify
some action? The author’s purpose, along with audience, will influence how he chooses to
word his views and the tone he employs.
e. Setting: What is the context or background in which the source was created?
f. Tone: How does the tone of the document (polite, aggressive, hostile, sad) relate to the
author’s purpose?

VII. Additional Document

1. As part of the DBQ essay, you will be asked to explain the need for an additional type of
document(s) to answer the question more completely, and this may involve discussing what
relevant points of view are missing from the set of documents. The explanation of at least one
additional source must show your recognition of the limitation of the given documents and the
reality of the types of sources available from the past.
2. The “Missing Voice”: Whose point of view is noticeably absent? Typical attempts include calling
for documents from women or the lower socioeconomic classes. However, the missing voice will
vary with the documents given, so do not simply use this as a fallback.
a. One Strategy: If Group Y is mentioned in Doc X, but you are not given a document from
Y’s point of view, this type of source could help you assess the validity of Doc X. Example:
A Catholic priest mentions the plight of the peasants working in the mines, but you do not
have the POV of a peasant miner. A statement from a peasant miner would help to more
accurately assess working conditions in the mines.
3. You must explain specifically how an additional document would help.
4. Possible Format: Further analysis would be aided by a document from a ______ (POV). This
would help to ___________. Or: This would allow one to better assess the validity of X’s claim
that __________.

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Sample “9” DBQ Essay

The colonization of the Americas by Spain and the beginning of extensive silver mining in Japan greatly
increased silver production. However, this increase of the supply of silver, while to some people seemed
good, overall caused problems. Although the increase in silver mining appeared to benefit Japan and
Spain (the suppliers) as well as Ming China (the receiver), overall this increase caused worldwide
problems. Based on the documents, the effects of the increase of silver production, while being
beneficial to the middlemen that facilitated the trade, eventually weakened the states and empires that
supplied and received silver in vast quantities.

In China, though many people believed the increase of trade that increased the amount of silver in China
was beneficial, overall the extreme amount that flowed in caused problems. Granted, the flow of some
silver into China was not a bad thing; in fact, it was needed. When the Ming Dynasty decreed that all
taxes and trade fees be paid in silver in the 1570s, the scarcity of silver coin harmed the economy since
people could not pay for their taxes and had to go to middlemen to supply them with silver, decreasing
the value of their produce (Doc 3). The problem, presented by Wang Xijue to the Ming emperor in 1593,
demonstrates the need for silver in Ming China. Xijue, being a court official, probably sees that a
declining economy by this issue will cause there to be public grumbling, maybe even cause for rebellions
against the Ming. Therefore, in an act to save his position, he informs the emperor of this problem. In
addition, He Qiaoyuan, also a court official of the Ming, describes the extreme amount of silver that the
Ming, a country with little interest in international trade, would have flowing into it if it began to trade
with the Europeans (Doc 7). Indeed, the price that would normally fetch silk instead is 2 or 3 times the
amount in the Philippines (a Spanish colony), giving the Ming a hefty profit if they began trading.
However, though this problem of the scarcity of silver was in need of a solution, the unrestricted flow of
silver to Ming China ultimately hurt the Ming economy. Ye Chunyi, a county official of the Ming, shows
wisdom in his order to limit wedding expenses (Doc 1). The basic reason to be frugal is one that the
Ming Empire should have used in their large transactions that would affect the economy. Furthermore,
the effect of silver taxes and transactions is shown in Xu Danqiu’s account of how the populace must go
through a moneylender in order to buy things since they must use silver instead of a traditional barter
economic system (Doc 5). The increased impediment to the Chinese economy would fill the pockets of
moneylenders instead of benefiting the economy.

Likewise, the increase in silver production, while benefiting Spain early on, in time hurt the Spanish
Empire. Tomas de Mercado, a Spanish scholar, wrote how the high prices of luxury goods caused silver
to only flow out of Spain, hurting the economy (Doc 2). Mercado wrote this account in 1517, yet already
Ming ships conducted extensive silver trade with the Spanish Empire via Manila. In addition, Arturo
Vasquez de Espinosa, a Spanish priest, shows another side that the silver production affected in a
negative way—the social side. Vasquez, writing about Potosi, the largest silver mine in Spain’s colonial
possessions, describes the terrible conditions that the Native Americans dealt with in the labor in the
mines (Doc 6). Vasquez’s account shows the continuing manipulation of the Native American population
by the Spanish. He is obviously a priest resembling Bartolome de las Casas in that he is sympathetic
towards the Indians; and, as a priest, being part of the organization that protected the Indians most
often, this reaction is not a surprise.

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In contrast, the increase in silver production benefited the middlemen that facilitated it more than the
producers and consumers. For example, Ralph Fitch, a British merchant, describes the lucrative trade
that the Portuguese conduct by being the facilitator of the silver flow from Japan to China in 1519 (Doc
4). As a British merchant, Fitch is most likely attracted to the prospect of a British takeover of this
market, with gradual buildup in British power taking place in the 17th century, he probably sees this as
an opportunity for his wish. In addition, Charles D’Avenant, an English scholar, describes the lucrative
trade that England would come to conduct in 1697 in the trade of luxury goods for silver and gold—
mostly from the Spanish colonies (Doc 8). Indeed, D’Avenant describes England’s need for the
continuation of this trade based on the high demand for luxury goods from Asia to Europe.

In conclusion, the increase in silver production in Japan and the Spanish Empire from 1500 to 1750
benefited not the consumer/supplier, but the middlemen. In fact, the rich silver mines in Potosi and
elsewhere did not benefit the Spanish Empire, while the English in this time period steadily rose to
power. In addition, Ming China was not benefited by the flow of silver to it—it would fall in 1644, racked
with economic problems and a weak government unable to stop the Manchu invaders. Additional
documents that could be useful would be documents from Ming peasants to show their aspect on the
restriction of taxes and sales only be conducted in silver, in addition to their reaction to the economic
problems (inflation) caused by the huge amount of silver that flowed to China. Also documents that
could be useful would be the affects that huge silver mining caused in Japan in order to compare the
effects of the production between Japan and Spain.

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 How to Write a Change and Continuity over Time Essay (CCOT)

I. Rubric
Basic Core Expanded Core
Historical skills and knowledge required to show Historical skills and knowledge required to show
competence. excellence.
1. Has acceptable thesis. 1 Point Expands beyond basic core of 1-7 Points. The basic
(addresses the global issues core of a score of 7 must be achieved before a
and time periods specified) student can earn expanded core points.
2. Addresses all parts of the 2 Points
of the question, though not Examples: 0-2 Points
necessarily evenly or thoroughly. Has a clear, analytical, and comprehensive
(Addresses most parts of the (1) thesis
question: for example, addresses Analyzes all issues of the question (as
change, but not continuity) relevant): global context, chronology,
3. Substantiates thesis with 2 Points causation, change, continuity, effects,
appropriate evidence. content.
(Partially substantiates thesis with (1) Provides ample historical evidence to
appropriate evidence.) substantiate thesis.
4. Uses relevant world historical Provides links with relevant ideas, events,
context effectively to explain 1 Point and trends in an innovative way.
change or continuity over time.
5. Analyzes the process of change 1 Point
and continuity over time.
Subtotal 7 Points Subtotal 2 Points

TOTAL 9 Points

II. Organization:
1st Paragraph: a. Introduction: 1-2 sentences describing the major features and events that
Thesis characterized the beginning of this era (starting point).
b. Thesis statement: Include years, major continuities, and major changes
2nd Paragraph(s): a. Topic Sentence: What major changes occurred in this time period? Were they the
Major Changes result of a single dramatic event (ex. Mongol conquest of Baghdad), or a gradual
shift (development of agriculture)?
b. Evidence: Give three supporting details or examples. If you have specific or
approximate dates, use them here.
c. Analysis: What is the main reason or cause of the change? “A changed because…”
3rd Paragraph(s): a. Topic Sentence: What was the major continuity? What stayed the same
Major throughout the time period?
Continuities b. Evidence: Give three supporting details or examples.
c. Analysis: What is the main reason for the continuity? “B continued because…”
4th Paragraph: a. Restate thesis
Conclusion b. Relate to larger global context!! How does this topic relate to the big picture of
what was going on at this time (global processes)?

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III. Thesis
1. Your thesis must identify a specific change and a specific continuity. It also must include the time
period given (600 to 1450, NOT the “Period 3”).
2. Format: From (start year) to (end year), X changed while Y continued.
3. Example: Analyze changes and continuities in Indian Ocean commerce from 600 to 1750.
o Thesis: From 600 to 1750, a major change in the commerce of the Indian Ocean region
involved the growing presence of Muslim and later European traders; however, spices
continued to be major trade goods and interregional interactions continued to result in
cultural diffusion throughout this era.

IV. Analysis
1. You need to attempt to explain why or how X changed or continued. It is not enough to say: X
was a change, because it wasn’t around before. What other factors help explain the change?
2. Key words: because, caused/caused by, led to, came from, in order to, due to
3. Example 1: Spices continued to be traded along the Indian Ocean because they could only be
grown in the tropical climates of India and Southeast Asia, but were in high demand
throughout Afro-Eurasia.
4. Example 2: Improvements in navigational technology and knowledge help explain the
growing presence of European traders after 1450, especially the voyage of Portuguese
explorer Vasco Da Gama. The compass, astrolabe, and caravel were important innovations
that contributed to European maritime trade. Also, the development of onboard cannons
allowed the Portuguese to seize Indian Ocean trading ports by force.

V. World Historical Context

1. This is where you need to connect the topic or question to the global processes going on
at this time (political revolutions, collapse of classical empires, imperialism,
industrialization)
2. You need to connect the topic you have just discussed to something in the SAME THEME
and SAME TIME PERIOD but a DIFFERENT REGION.
3. Example: The increased presence of European traders in the Indian Ocean was part of a
broader trend of European expansion from 1450 to 1750 that included the conquest and
colonization in the Americas. In both hemispheres, Europeans were motivated by the
desire to profit from trade and spread Christianity.

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Sample Change over Time Essay

Question: Analyze changes and continuities in the cultural beliefs and practices of Latin America from
1450 to the present.

In the year 1450, the Aztec and Inca Empires were at the height of their power, having recently
conquered their neighbors. At the same time, the European nations of Spain and Portugal were about to
embark upon a new era of exploration, spurred on by recent developments in navigation. The conquest
and later colonization of the Americas by a succession of European powers would forever change
cultural life in the Americas. From 1450 to the present, Latin America experienced widespread
conversion to Christianity and abolished the practice of human sacrifice; however, indigenous peoples
maintained many of their local customs and traditions by blending them with Christianity.

The most significant cultural change in Latin America since 1450 was the shift from polytheism to
monotheism. The Inca and Aztec Empires both had complex religious practices centered on the belief in
many gods, including human sacrifice. The arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean in 1492
marked the beginning of Spanish missionary efforts. Having just completed the Reconquista, the Spanish
were filled with the crusading spirit and the desire to spread Roman Catholicism. Columbus was
followed by Cortez, who conquered the Aztec, and Pizarro, who conquered the Inca Empire. After
witnessing human sacrifice, Cortez and the Spanish began their efforts to ban the practice, and
succeeded. Jesuit missionaries worked to put the Catholic faith in the language of the Amerindians,
while priests such as Bartolome de las Casas even spoke out on their behalf. Within a few decades of
Spanish missionary activity, millions of Amerindians had freely converted to Christianity. A possible
explanation for this change is that their previous polytheistic beliefs were discredited by the Spanish
conquest, and they were hoping to benefit from the social protections of conversion.

Despite the enormous change from polytheism to monotheism, the indigenous peoples of Latin America
were able to continue many of the traditional customs, either by actively resisting conversion or by
blending aspects of polytheism with Christianity. Many Mexican Catholics revered the image of Our Lady
of Guadalupe, in which the Virgin Mary appeared as a mestiza cloaked in Aztec symbols. Holidays like
Dia de los Muertos and Carnival reinterpreted polytheistic practices through the lens of Christianity.
Indigenous song and dance were also preserved. However, instead of being directed at Aztec or Inca
gods, they were used to celebrate the Christian trinity and the saints. A possible explanation for the
persistence of traditional customs is that the Spanish hoped to encourage more conversion by allowing
for some cultural blending. Different groups have been able to successfully adapt Christianity to their
unique settings, including the Europeans themselves who received Christianity from the Middle East.

While conversion to Christianity increased and human sacrifice ended after 1450, many people in Latin
America continue the traditional customs of its indigenous peoples to this day. The conquest and
colonization of Latin America by Europeans would forever change the face of its cultural landscape.
However, Latin America was not the only region to experience widespread cultural change after 1450, as
North America was also colonized by Europeans. Yet Spanish missionary efforts were far greater than
those of the English settlers in North America, resulting in less conversion.

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 How to Write a Comparative Essay

I. Rubric
Basic Core Expanded Core
1. Has acceptable thesis. 1 Point Expands beyond basic core of 1-7 Points. The
(addresses comparison of the basic core of a score of 7 must be achieved
issues or themes specified) before a student can earn expanded core points.
2. Addresses all parts of the 2 Points
of the question, though not Examples: 0-2 Points
necessarily evenly or thoroughly. Has a clear, analytical, and
(Addresses most parts of the (1) comprehensive thesis
question: for example, deals with Addresses all parts of the question (as
differences but not similarities) relevant): comparisons, chronology,
3. Substantiates thesis with 2 Points causation, connections, themes,
appropriate evidence. interactions, content.
(Partially substantiates thesis with (1) Provides ample historical evidence to
appropriate evidence.) substantiate thesis.
4. Makes at least three relevant, 1 Point Relates comparisons to larger global
direct comparisons between or context.
among societies. Makes several direct comparisons
5. Analyzes at least three reasons 1 Point consistently between or among
for a similarity or difference societies.
identified in a direct comparison. Consistently analyzes the causes and
effects of relevant similarities and
differences.
Subtotal 7 Points Subtotal 2 Points

TOTAL 9 Points

II. Organization

1st Paragraph: Thesis 2-3 sentences of introduction, historical context

Thesis statement (Identify specific similarities and differences)
2nd Paragraph(s): Topic Sentence
Similarities Supporting Evidence (including direct comparisons)
Analysis: Why was X similar or different?
3rd Paragraph(s): Topic Sentence
Differences Supporting Evidence (including direct comparisons)
Analysis: Why was Y similar or different?
4th Paragraph: Restate thesis
Conclusion Analysis or restate analysis
Relate to larger global context; explain importance of topic

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III. Thesis
1. Your thesis must address the question and include a specific difference and similarity
2. Must identify three parts of your argument, which will correspond to three body
paragraphs. Must be in the first paragraph
3. Examples: Compare and contrast the effects of Mongol rule in Russia and China.
a. No Thesis: The recovery of Russia and China after Mongol domination had many
similarities and differences.
b. Weak Thesis: When Russia and China recovered from Mongol domination, they
had similar political goals, but different cultural goals.
c. Strong Thesis: While both Russia and China built strong central governments after
breaking free from the Mongols and engaged in territorial expansion, Russia
imitated the culture and technology of Europe, while China returned to previous
cultural traditions.
4. Sample Formulas: While X and Y both A and B, they differed in C.
X and Y both A; however, they differed in B and C

IV. Evidence
a. Be specific!!!
b. Overview: Provide specific examples and facts to support your arguments. Make sure you
have evidence for both similarities and differences. Be sure to develop and elaborate
upon your points.
c. Structure your essay for direct comparisons. Compare “apples to apples,” not “apples to
oranges” For example, if comparing Christianity and Hinduism, don’t just write everything
you know about Christianity in one paragraph and Hinduism in another. Directly compare
different aspects such as beliefs, practices, and location.
i. Direct: Christianity is monotheistic, whereas Hinduism is polytheistic.
ii. Indirect: Christianity is monotheistic. Hinduism influences social structures through
the caste system.
d. Use linking comparative words to help set up direct comparisons like: whereas, however,
while, on the other hand, conversely, likewise

V. Analysis
- This is where you attempt to explain a similarity or difference
- This can often involve explaining a particular similarity or difference, say in religion, by tracing it
back to a difference in another SPICE feature: for example, interaction with the environment
(geography).
- Key words: because, a possible explanation, this is due to, a reason for this is
- Note: Make sure you explain your analysis. Do not just state: “Egyptian and Mesopotamian
religions were different because they had different geography.” You must illustrate why and/or
how this is the case. Connect the dots!

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Sample “9” Essay: “Compare the spread of Islam to Spain and India prior to 1500 C.E.”

Islam is a monotheistic faith based on the teachings of the prophet Mohammad. It originated in the
Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century C.E. and quickly spread throughout Afro-Eurasia. While some
regions welcomed the new faith, others resisted. Prior to 1500 C.E., Islam diffused to both Spain and
India by conquest and attracted some converts amongst the local population. However, while Spain was
able to expel the Muslim Moors by 1492, Islam continued to have an important presence in India.

Both Spain and India were conquered by Muslim armies. Spain was invaded by Berbers and Arabs from
North Africa in the 8th century, whereas India was invaded by Muslim Turks in the 12th century. A
possible explanation for why both Spain and India were conquered is that neither region had strong
empires at the time of Islamic conquest. The Roman and Gupta Empires that had once ruled these
territories had long since declined, replaced by weaker states that were no match for Muslim forces. In
both Spain and India, Islam arrived by the sword and was fiercely resisted.

After their initial conquest, both Spain and India experienced some conversion to Islam amongst the
local population. However, in both regions there were important limits to conversion, with many
choosing to continue their pre-existing traditions. Some Christians and Jews converted to Islam in Spain,
largely because Islamic civilization had a flourishing culture and scholarship at this time. In India, some
lower-caste Hindus and Buddhists converted to Islam, partly due to the efforts of Sufi missionaries and
the appeal of Islam’s egalitarian social organization. However, Muslims remained a minority in India,
with no more than 20 to 25 percent of the population converting. Likewise in Spain, many Jews and
Christians continued their existing traditions. A possible explanation for the limits of conversion in both
regions is that Islamic rulers were tolerant of other faiths, as the Muslim religion teaches that conversion
should be voluntary. In India in particular, the traditions of Hinduism and the caste system were so
ingrained in the culture that they were able to survive this and later Islamic invasions.

Both regions resisted Islamic conquest, but only Spain was able to expel the Muslims by 1492. Ferdinand
of Aragon and Isabella of Castile united Christian Spain with their marriage, joining forces to complete
the nearly 700-year long Reconquista. Once Muslim forces had been driven out, Ferdinand and Isabella
established the Spanish Inquisition to ensure that all citizens of Spain followed the Roman Catholic faith.
This decision led to the expulsion of 200,000 Jews and Muslims. India was never able to expel their
Muslim population, and while the Delhi Sultanate eventually fell, the Mughal Empire would continue
Islamic rule in the region until its fall in the 18th century. A possible explanation for this difference is that
the geography of Spain is much smaller and easier to defend, as it is a peninsula, whereas northern India
has experienced numerous invasions due to its location on the Asian landmass.

While only Spain was able to fully expel Muslim forces by 1492, both Spain and India were conquered by
Islamic armies and both experienced some conversion among the local populations. Unlike parts of the
Middle East and Anatolia that were more thoroughly Islamized, both Spain and India resisted Islam and
maintained their previous traditions of Christianity and Hinduism, respectively. The importance of this
resistance can be seen today. While Islam left its mark on both regions, Spain remains predominantly
Christian, and India remains largely Hindu.

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Released Free Response Questions
2015
1. Analyze continuities and changes in labor systems in ONE of the following regions within the time period
1450 to 1900: Latin America and the Caribbean, North America

2. Analyze similarities and differences in TWO of the following trade networks in the period 600 C.E. to 1450
C.E. Your response may include comparisons of biological, commercial, or cultural exchanges.
Indian Ocean, Silk Roads, Trans-Sahara

2014
1. Analyze continuities and changes in the ways ONE of the following regions participated in interregional
trade during the period circa 1500 to 1750.
Latin America, including the Caribbean; Sub-Saharan Africa; Southeast Asia

2. Analyze similarities and differences in how TWO of the following empires used religion to govern before
1450. Byzantine Empire, Islamic Caliphates, Mauryan/Gupta Empires

2013
1. Analyze how political transformations contributed to continuities and changes in the cultures of the
Mediterranean region during the period circa 200 C.E. to 1000 C.E.

2. Analyze similarities and differences between the role of the state in Japan’s economic development and the
role of the state in the economic development of ONE of the following during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries: China, Ottoman Empire, Russia

2012
1. Analyze continuities and changes in trade networks between Africa and Eurasia from circa 300 to 1450.

2. Compare demographic and environmental effects of the Columbian Exchange on the Americas with the
Columbian Exchange’s demographic and environmental effects on ONE of the following regions between
1492 and 1750: Africa, Asia, Europe

2011
1. Analyze changes and continuities in long-distance migrations in the period from 1700 to 1900. Be sure to
include specific examples from at least TWO different world regions.

2. Analyze similarities and differences in the rise of TWO of the following empires.
- A West African Sudanic empire (Mali OR Ghana OR Songhay)
- The Aztec Empire The Mongol Empire

2010
1. Analyze continuities and changes in cultural beliefs and practices in ONE of the following regions from
1450 to the present: Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America/Caribbean

2. Analyze similarities and differences in techniques of imperial administration in TWO of the following
empires.
• Han China (206 B.C.E.–220 C.E.)
• Mauryan/Gupta India (320 B.C.E.–550 C.E.)
• Imperial Rome (31 B.C.E.–476 C.E.)

2009
1. Analyze continuities and changes along the Silk Roads from 200 B.C.E. to 1450 C.E.

19
 2. Compare the effects of racial ideologies on North American societies with those on Latin
American/Carribean societies during the period from 1500 to 1830.

2008
1. Analyze continuities and changes in the commercial life of the Indian Ocean region from 650 C.E. to 1750.

2. Compare the emergence of nation-states in nineteenth-century Latin America with the emergence of nation-
states in ONE of the following regions in the twentieth century.
• Sub-Saharan Africa
• The Middle East

2007
1. Analyze continuities and changes in nationalist ideology and practice in ONE of the following regions from
the First World War to the present:
• Middle East
• Southeast Asia
• Sub-Saharan Africa

2. Compare the historical processes of empire building in the Spanish maritime empire during the period from
1450 through 1800 with the historical processes of empire building in ONE of the following land-based
empires.
• The Ottoman Empire OR the Russian Empire

2006
1. Analyze continuities and changes in the cultural and political life of ONE of the following societies.
• Chinese, 100 CE to 600 CE
• Roman, 100 CE to 600 CE
• Indian, 300 CE to 600 CE

2. Compare the outcomes of the movements to redistribute land in TWO of the following countries, beginning
with the dates specified.
• Mexico, 1910 • China, 1911 • Russia, 1917

2005
1. Analyze the social and economic transformations that occurred in the Atlantic world as a result of new
contacts among Western Europe, Africa, and the Americas from 1492 to 1750.

2. Compare the process of state-building in TWO of the following in the period 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E.
• Islamic states; City-states; Mongol khanates

2004
1. Analyze continuities and changes in labor systems between 1750 and 1900 in ONE of the following
regions. • Latin America and the Caribbean • Oceania • Sub-Saharan Africa

2. Compare the effects of the First World War in TWO of the following regions: East Asia, Middle East,
South Asia

2003
1. Analyze continuities and changes that resulted from the spread of Islam into ONE of the following regions
in the period between circa 800 C.E. and circa 1750: West Africa, South Asia, Europe

2. Compare differing responses to industrialization in any TWO of the following:

Japan, Russia, Ottoman Empire

20
AP Curriculum Framework

PERIOD 1: UP TO 600 BCE

Key Concept 1.1. Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth – Paleolithic Era

I. Paleolithic Era: Archeological evidence shows that during the Paleolithic era, hunting-foraging bands
of humans gradually migrated from their origin in East Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas,
adapting their technology and cultures to new climates.
A. Humans used fire to aid hunting, protect against predators, and adapt to cold environments.
B. Humans developed a wider range of tools specially adapted to different environments.
C. Economic structures focused on small kinship (family) groups of hunting foraging bands that could
make what they needed to survive. However, not all groups were self-sufficient; they exchanged people,
ideas, and goods.

Key Concept 1.2. The Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies – Neolithic Era

I. Neolithic Revolution: Beginning around 10,000 years ago, the Neolithic Revolution resulted in the
development of new and more complex economic and social systems.
A. Possibly as a response to climatic change, permanent agricultural villages emerged first in the lands
of the eastern Mediterranean. Agriculture emerged at different times in Mesopotamia, the Nile River
Valley and Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River Valley, the Yellow River or Huang He Valley, Papua New
Guinea, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.
B. Pastoralism (herding) developed at various sites in the grasslands of Afro- Eurasia.
C. Different crops or animals were domesticated in the various core regions.
D. Agricultural communities worked cooperatively to clear land and create water control systems
(irrigation) needed for crop production.
E. These agricultural practices drastically impacted environmental diversity. Pastoralists also affected the
environment by grazing large numbers of animals on fragile grasslands, leading to erosion when
overgrazed.

II. Agriculture and pastoralism began to transform human societies.

A. Pastoralism and agriculture led to more reliable and abundant food supplies, which increased the
population.
B. Surpluses of food and other goods led to specialization of labor, including new classes of artisans and
warriors, and the development of elites.
C. Technological innovations led to improvements in agricultural production, trade, and transportation.
Examples: pottery, plows, woven textiles, metallurgy, wheels and wheeled vehicles
D. In both pastoralist and agrarian societies, elite groups accumulated wealth, creating more hierarchical
(unequal) social structures and promoting patriarchal (male-dominated) forms of social organization.

Key Concept 1.3. Development and Interactions of Early Agricultural, Pastoral, & Urban Societies—Early
Civilizations

I. Core civilizations developed in a variety of geographical and environmental settings where agriculture
flourished. Examples:
Mesopotamia in Tigris/Euphrates River Valleys; Egypt in Nile River Valley
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in Indus River Valley, Shang in the Huang He Valley
Olmec in Mesoamerica; Chavin in Andean South America

21
II. The first states emerged within core civilizations.
A. States were powerful new systems of rule that mobilized surplus labor and resources over large
areas. Early states were often led by a ruler whose source of power was believed to be divine or had
divine support and/or who was supported by the military.
B. As states grew and competed for land and resources, the more favorably situated — including the
Hittites, who had access to iron — had greater access to resources, produced more surplus food, and
experienced growing populations. These states were able to undertake territorial expansion and conquer
surrounding states.
C. Early regions of state expansion or empire building: Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and the Nile Valley.
D. Pastoralists were often the developers and disseminators of new weapons and modes of
transportation that transformed warfare in agrarian civilizations.
Examples: Compound bows, iron weapons, chariots, horseback riding

III. Culture: Culture played big role in unifying states with laws, language, literature, religion, myths, and
monumental art.
A. Early civilizations developed monumental architecture and urban planning.
Examples: ziggurats, pyramids, temples, defensive walls, roads, sewage/water systems
B. Elites, both political and religious, promoted arts and artisanship.
Examples: sculpture, painting, wall decorations, weaving.
C. Systems of record keeping arose in all early civilizations & diffused.
Examples: cuneiform, pictographs, hieroglyphs, alphabets, quipu
D. States developed legal codes (like Code of Hammurabi) reflecting existing hierarchies & facilitating
rule of governments.
E. New religious beliefs developed in this period continued to have strong influences in later periods.
Examples: The Vedic religion ( Hinduism); Hebrew monotheism ( Judaism); Zoroastrianism
F. Trade expanded throughout this period from local to regional and transregional, with civilizations
exchanging goods, cultural ideas, and technology.
Examples: Between Egypt and Nubia; Between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley
G. Social and gender hierarchies intensified as states expanded and cities multiplied.
H. Literature was also a reflection of culture.
Examples: The Epic of Gilgamesh, Rig Veda, Book of the Dead

22
PERIOD 2: 600 BCE to 600 CE

Key Concept 2.1. The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions

I. Codifications (writing down) and development of existing religions provided a bond among the
people and an ethical code to live by.
A. Judaism: The association of monotheism w/ Judaism was further developed with the codification of
the Hebrew Scriptures, which also reflected the influence of Mesopotamian cultural and legal traditions.
The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Roman empires conquered various Jewish states at different points in
time, resulting in Jewish diasporic communities in Mediterranean & Mideast.
B. Hinduism: The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of the Vedic religions
— later known as Hinduism — which contributed to the development of the social and political roles of a
caste system and in the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahma to promote teachings about
reincarnation.

II. New belief systems & cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.
A. Buddhism: The core beliefs about desire, suffering, and the search for enlightenment preached by
the historic Buddha and recorded by his followers into sutras and other scriptures were, in part, a
reaction to the Vedic beliefs and rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism changed over time as it
spread throughout Asia — first through the support of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, then through
missionaries and merchants, and the establishment of educational institutions to promote its core
teachings (monasteries).
B. Confucianism: Core beliefs and writings originated in writings and lessons of Confucius, and were
elaborated by disciples; sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social
relationships for all people in China, including the rulers.
C. Daoism: In the major Daoist writings, core belief of balance between humans and nature assumed
Chinese political system would be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the development of Chinese
culture. Examples: Medicine, Poetry, Metallurgy, Architecture
D. Christianity: Based on core beliefs about teachings & divinity of Jesus as recorded by disciples; drew
on Judaism; initially rejected Roman/Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility,
Christianity spread through efforts of missionaries and merchants to many parts of Afro-Eurasia, and
eventually gained Roman imperial support (Emperor Constantine).
E. Greco-Roman rationalism: Core ideas in philosophy/science emphasized logic, observation, nature
of political power and hierarchy.

III. Belief systems affected gender roles. Buddhism & Christianity encouraged monastic life (living
apart from society as monks/nuns) and Confucianism emphasized filial piety (respect for elders, parents,
and ancestors).

IV. Other religious and cultural traditions continued parallel to the codified belief systems.
A. Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within and outside of core civilizations
because of their daily reliance on the natural world.
B. Ancestor veneration persisted in Africa, East Asia, and the Andes.

V. Artistic expressions show distinctive cultural developments.

A. Literature and drama acquired distinctive forms that influenced artistic developments in neighboring
regions and in later time periods. Examples: Greek plays, Indian epics
B. Distinctive architectural styles developed in many regions in this period.
Examples: India, Greece, Roman Empire, Mesoamerica
C. The blending of Greco-Roman culture and Buddhist beliefs led to unique sculptural developments (the
Gandhara Buddha’s); this is an example of syncretism (blending two different cultures together).

23
Key Concept 2.2. The Development of States and Empires

I. States and Empires: The number and size of key states and empires grew dramatically by imposing
political unity on areas where previously there had been competing states.
Examples: Mediterranean region: Phoenicia & colonies, Greek city-states & colonies, and Hellenistic and
Roman Empires; SW Asia: Persian Empires (Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanid); East Asia: Qin, Han;
South Asia: Maurya, Gupta; Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Maya city-states; Andes: Moche

II. Empires & states developed new techniques of imperial administration based in part on
success of earlier political forms.
A. Rulers created administrative institutions to rule subjects.
Examples: centralized governments, legal systems, bureaucracies
B. Imperial governments projected military power over larger areas using a variety of techniques.
Examples: diplomacy, supply lines, defensive walls, roads; drawing new groups of military officers
& soldiers from local populations or conquered peoples
C. Much of the success of the empires rested on their promotion of trade and economic integration by
building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies.
Examples: China, Persia, Rome, South Asia

III. Unique social and economic dimensions developed in imperial societies.

A. Cities served as centers of trade, public performance of religious rituals, and political administration.
Examples: Persepolis, Chang’an, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Constantinople, Teotihuacan
B. Social hierarchies included cultivators, laborers, slaves, artisans, merchants, elites, or caste groups.
C. Societies relied on a range of methods to maintain the production of food and provide rewards for the
loyalty of the elites.
Examples: Corvée, Slavery, Rents and tributes, Peasant communities
D. Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies of this period

24
IV. Decline and Fall: The Roman, Han, Persian, Mauryan, and Gupta empires created political, cultural,
and administrative difficulties that they could not manage, leading to their decline and collapse.
A. Through excessive mobilization of resources, imperial governments caused environmental damage,
social tensions, and economic difficulties, resulting in too much wealth in the hands of elites.
Examples: Deforestation, Desertification, Soil erosion, Silted rivers
B. External problems resulted from security issues along their frontiers, including the threat of invasions:
Han China & Xiongnu (Huns); Gupta and the White Huns; Romans and their N/E neighbors.

Key Concept 2.3. Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and Exchange

I. Emergence of Trade Routes: Land and water routes became the basis for transregional trade,
communication, and exchange.
A. Many factors, including the climate and location of the routes, the typical trade goods, and the
ethnicity of people involved, shaped the distinctive features of a variety of trade routes.
Examples: Silk Roads, Trans-Saharan trade, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean

II. Technologies: New technologies facilitated long-distance communication and exchange.

A. Use of domesticated pack animals. Ex: Yokes, Saddles, Stirrups, Horses, Oxen, Llamas, Camels
B. Innovations in maritime technologies, as well as advanced knowledge of the monsoon winds,
stimulated exchanges along maritime routes from East Africa to East Asia. Ex: Lateen sail; Dhow ships

III. Diffusion: Exchange of people, technology, religious/cultural beliefs, crops, domesticated animals,
disease pathogens
A. The spread of crops, including rice and cotton from South Asia to the Middle East, encouraged
changes in farming and irrigation techniques. Ex: The qanat system (see picture below)
B. The spread of disease pathogens diminished urban pops & contributed to the decline of Roman and
Chinese Empires
C. Religious and cultural traditions were transformed as they spread (Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism)

25
PERIOD 3: 600 to 1450

Key Concept 3.1. Expansion and Intensification of Communication and Exchange Networks

I. Trade: Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of
trade, and expanded the geographical range of existing and newly active trade networks.
A. Existing trade routes flourished and led to powerful new trading cities.
Routes: Silk Roads, Indian Ocean, Med Sea, Indian Ocean
Cities: Novgorod, Timbuktu, Swahili city-states, Hangzhou, Calicut, Baghdad, Melaka, Venice,
B. New trade routes centering on Mesoamerica and the Andes developed.
C. The growth of interregional trade in luxury goods was encouraged by significant innovations in
technologies, including more sophisticated caravan organization, use of the compass, astrolabe, and
larger ship designs in sea travel; and new forms of credit and monetization.
Luxury Goods: Silk/cotton textiles, Porcelain, Spices, Precious metals & gems, Slaves, Exotic animals
Caravan organization: Caravanserai (roadside inns), Camel saddles
Forms of credit: Bills of exchange, Credit, Checks, Banking houses
D. Commercial growth was also facilitated by state practices, trading organizations, and infrastructure
Ex: The Grand Canal in China, minting of coins and paper money; Hanseatic League
E. The expansion of empires facilitated Trans-Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were
drawn into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks
Ex: China, the Byzantine Empire, the Caliphates, the Mongols

II. Migration: The movement of peoples caused environmental and linguistic effects.
A. The expansion of trade routes depended on environmental knowledge and technological adaptations.
Ex: Vikings longships; Arabs/Berbers used camels in Sahara; Central Asian herders used horses
B. Some migrations had a significant environmental impact.
Bantu: facilitated transmission of iron technologies and agricultural techniques in Sub-Saharan Africa
Polynesian: maritime, cultivated transplanted foods & domesticated animals as moved to new islands
C. Some migrations and trade led to diffusion of language: Bantu (including Swahili), Turkish, Arabic

26
III. Diffusion: Cross-cultural exchanges were fostered by existing and new trade routes.
A. Islam: Islam, based on the revelations of the prophet Muhammad, developed in the Arabian
Peninsula. The beliefs and practices of Islam reflected interactions among Jews, Christians, and
Zoroastrians with the local Arabian peoples. Muslim rule expanded to Afro-Eurasia due to military
expansion, and later activities of merchants and missionaries.
B. Merchants set up diasporic communities in key places where they introduced their own cultural
traditions into the indigenous culture. Ex: Muslim merchant communities in the Indian Ocean region,
Chinese merchant communities in SE Asia, Jewish communities in the Med, IOT, SR.
C. The writings of certain interregional travelers illustrate both the extent and the limitations of
intercultural knowledge and understanding. Ex: Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo, Xuanzang
D. Increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in cultural diffusion.
Ex: Neoconfucianism & Buddhism in East Asia, Hinduism & Buddhism in SE Asia, Islam in S-S Africa
& SE Asia, Toltec/Mexica & Inca traditions in Mesoamerica & Andes
E. Increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions.
Ex: Influence of Greek & Indian mathematics on Muslim scholars; the return of Greek science and
philosophy to Western Europe via Muslim al-Andalus in Iberia; Spread of printing & gunpowder
technology from East Asia Islamic empires & W. Europe

IV. Continued diffusion of crops and pathogens throughout the Eastern Hemisphere along the
trade routes.
A. New foods and agricultural techniques were adopted in populated areas:
Champa rice from Vietnam to China in East Asia; Spread of cotton, sugar, and citrus throughout Dar al-
Islam and the Mediterranean basin; Bananas in Africa
B. The spread of epidemic diseases, including the Black Death, followed trade routes.

Key Concept 3.2. Continuity and Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions

27
I. Empires: Empires collapsed and were reconstituted; in some regions new state forms emerged.
A. Following the collapse of empires, most reconstituted governments, including the Byzantine Empire
and the Chinese dynasties — Sui, Tang, and Song — combined traditional sources of power and
legitimacy (patriarchy, religion, land-owning elites) with innovations better suited to the current
circumstances (new taxation, tribute systems, religions).
B. New forms of governance:
- Islamic states (Abbasids, Muslim Iberia, Delhi sultanates)
- Mongol Khanates
- City-states (Italian, SE Asian, American)
- Decentralized government (feudalism) in Europe and Japan.
C. Some states synthesized local and borrowed traditions.
Ex: Persian traditions Islamic states, Chinese Japan; Byzantine Russia
D. In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems expanded in scope and reach: Networks of city-
states flourished in the Maya region and, at the end of this period, imperial systems were created by the
Mexica (“Aztecs”) and Inca.

II. Diffusion: Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant
technological and cultural transfers.
Ex: Between Tang China and the Abbasids, across the Mongol empire, during the Crusades

Key Concept 3.3. Increased Economic Productive Capacity and Its Consequences

I. Innovations stimulated agricultural and industrial production in many regions.

A. Agricultural production increased significantly due to technological innovations. Ex: Champa rice
varieties, Chinampa field systems (Aztec), Waru waru techniques (Inca), terracing, horse collar
B. In response to increasing demand in Afro-Eurasia for foreign luxury goods, crops were transported
from their indigenous homelands to equivalent climates in other regions.
C. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and
porcelains for export; industrial production of iron and steel expanded in China.

II. Cities: The fate of cities varied greatly, with periods of significant decline, and with periods of
increased urbanization buoyed by rising productivity and expanding trade networks.
A. Multiple factors contributed to the declines of urban areas in this period, such as invasions, disease,
agricultural decline.
B. Multiple factors contributed to urban revival. Examples: End of invasions, safer transport, rise of trade,
warmer temps 800 to 1300, increased productivity and rising pops, labor supply
C. While cities in general continued to play the roles they had played in the past as governmental,
religious, and commercial centers, many older cities declined while numerous new cities emerged.

III. Social Change and Continuity: Despite significant continuities in social structures and in methods of
production, there were also important changes in labor management and in the effect of religious
conversion on gender relations and family life.
A. As in the previous period, there were many forms of labor organization. Ex: free peasant agriculture,
nomadic pastoralism, craft production/guild organization, coerced/unfree labor, govt imposed labor taxes
(mita-Inca), military
B. As in previous eras, social structures were shaped largely by class and caste hierarchies. Patriarchy
persisted; however, women had more power/influence among the Mongols and in West Africa, Japan,
and SE Asia.
C. New forms of coerced labor appeared, including serfdom in Europe and Japan and the elaboration of
the mit’a in the Inca Empire. Free peasants resisted attempts to raise dues and taxes by staging revolts
in Byzantine and China. Demand for slaves (military/domestic) increased, particularly in central Eurasia,
parts of Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean.
D. Diffusion of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Neoconfucianism big changes in gender relations &
family structure.

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PERIOD 4: 1450 to 1750

Key Concept 4.1. Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange, 1450-1750

I. Continuity: This era witnessed the intensification of all existing regional trade networks, resulting in
both continued prosperity and economic disruption to merchants & governments in the Indian Ocean,
Mediterranean, Sahara, and overland Eurasia.

II. Technology: European technological developments in cartography & navigation built on previous
knowledge from classical, Islamic, & Asian worlds, including improved understanding of global wind and
currents patterns.
Examples: New tools- Astrolabe, revised map; Innovations in ship designs: caravels

III. Exploration: Remarkable new transoceanic maritime reconnaissance occurred in this period.
A. Official Chinese maritime activity expanded into the Indian Ocean with the voyages led by Ming
Admiral Zheng He to enhance China’s prestige.
B. A Portuguese school for navigation was founded by Prince Henry, leading to an increase in travel and
trade with West Africa, and later the development of a global trading-post empire.
C. Spanish sponsorship of Columbus and later explorers across the Atlantic and Pacific increased
European interest in trade and travel.
D. Northern Atlantic crossings for fishing & settlements continued & spurred European searches for a
northwest passage to Asia.
E. In Oceania and Polynesia, established exchange and communication networks were not dramatically
affected because of infrequent European reconnaissance in the Pacific Ocean.

IV. Commercial Revolution: The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by royal chartered
European monopoly companies that took silver from Spanish colonies in the Americas to purchase Asian
goods for the Atlantic markets, but regional markets continued using established practices & new
shipping services developed by European merchants.
A. European merchants’ in Indian Ocean mainly transported goods from one Asian country to another
Asian market.
B. Commercialization and the creation of a global economy linked to new global circulation of silver from
the Americas.
C. Influenced by mercantilism, joint-stock companies were new methods used by European rulers to
control their domestic and colonial economies and by European merchants to compete against one
another in global trade.
D. The Atlantic system involved the movement of goods, wealth, and free and unfree laborers, and the
mixing of African, American, and European cultures and peoples. (Triangular Trade)

29
V. Columbian Exchange: The new connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres
resulted in the Columbian Exchange.
A. European colonization of the Americas led to the spread of diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza)
endemic in the Eastern Hem. to Amerindian populations; also unintentional transfer of mosquitoes, rats.
B. American foods (potatoes, maize, manioc) became staple crops in various parts of Afro-Eurasia.
Cash crops (sugar, tobacco) were grown on plantations w/ slave labor and exported to Europe.
C. Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and animals (horses, pigs, cattle) were brought by Europeans
D. Populations in Afro-Eurasia benefited nutritionally from the increased diversity of American food crops.
E. European colonization and the introduction of European agriculture and settlements practices in the
Americas often affected the physical environment through deforestation and soil depletion.

VI. Religious Diffusion and Division: Increased interactions between newly connected hemispheres
expanded the spread and reform of existing religions and created syncretic belief systems and practices.
A. As Islam spread to new settings in Afro-Eurasia, believers adapted it to local cultural practices. The
split between the Sunni and Shi’a traditions intensified, and Sufi practices became more widespread.
B. Christianity continued to spread and was diversified by diffusion to Americas and Reformation.
C. Buddhism spread within Asia.
D. Syncretic and new forms of religion developed. (Vodun in Caribbean, Cults of saints in Latin America,
Sikhism in South Asia

VII. Art: As merchants’ profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the visual
and performing arts, even for popular audiences, increased.
A. Innovations: Renaissance art in Europe, mini-paintings in Middle East and South Asia, wood-block
prints in Japan, Mesoamerican codices
B. Literacy expanded popular authors, literary forms, and works of literature in Afro-Eurasia.
Shakespeare, Cervantes (Don Quixote), Sundiata, Journey to the West, Kabuki theatre

Key Concept 4.2. New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production

I. Labor Systems: Traditional peasant agriculture increased and changed, plantations expanded, and
demand for labor increased.
A. Peasant labor intensified (frontier settlements in Russian Siberia, textiles in India, silk in China)
B. Slavery in Africa continued both traditional household slavery and export to Med Sea & Indian Ocean.
C. The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for slaves in the Americas.
D. Forced labor in Colonial America included chattel slavery, Indentured servitude, Encomienda; Spanish
use of the Inca mit’a (unpaid labor obligations to the state).
30
II. Social Structures: As new social and political elites changed, they also restructured new ethnic,
racial, and gender hierarchies.
A. Both imperial conquests & global economic opportunities formation of new political and economic
elites. Ex: Manchus in China, Creole elites in Spanish America, European gentry, Urban traders
B. The power of existing political and economic elites fluctuated as they confronted new challenges to
their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders.
Ex: zamindars in Mughal, nobility in Europe, daimyo in Japan
C. Some notable gender and family restructuring occurred, including the demographic changes in Africa
that resulted from the slave trades. Ex: dependence of European men on SE Asian women for trade;
smaller size of European families
D. The massive demographic changes in Americas new ethnic and racial classifications. Mestizo
(mixed European and Native American), mulatto (mixed Euro & African), creole (American-born whites)

Key Concept 4.3. State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion

I. State Consolidation: Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power.
A. Arts to display power: Monumental architecture, Urban design, Courtly literature, The visual arts
B. Rulers continued to use religious ideas to legitimize their rule. Safavid use of Shiism, Aztec human
sacrifice, Songhay promotion of Islam, Chinese emperors’ public performance of Confucian rituals
C. States treated different ethnic and religious groups in ways that utilized their economic contributions
while limiting ability to challenge state authority. Ex: Ottoman use of non-Muslims, Manchu policies
toward Chinese, Spanish “Republica de Indios”
D. Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals,
became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations
and resources. Ex: Ottoman devshirme, Chinese exam system
E. Rulers used tribute collection and tax farming to generate revenue for territorial expansion.

II. Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish
large empires.
A. Europeans established new trading-post empires in Africa and Asia (increased profits for rulers and
merchants), but these empires also affected the power of the states in interior West and Central Africa.
B. Land empires expanded dramatically in size: Manchus (Qing), Mughals, Ottomans, Russians
C. European states established new maritime empires in the Americas:
Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, British

III. Challenges to state consolidation and expansion.

A. Competition over trade routes: Omani-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean, Piracy in the Caribbean.
B. State rivalries: Thirty Years War (Catholic v. Protestant), Ottoman-Safavid conflict (Shia v. Sunni).
C. Local resistance: food riots, samurai revolts, peasant uprisings

31
PERIOD 5: 1750 to 1900

Key Concept 5.1. Industrialization and Global Capitalism

I. Industrialization fundamentally changed how goods were produced.

A. A variety of factors led to the rise of industrial production.: Europe’s location on the Atlantic Ocean; the
geographical distribution of coal, iron and timber; European demographic changes; Urbanization;
Improved agricultural productivity; Legal protection of private property; An abundance of rivers and
canals; Access to foreign resources; accumulation of capital
B. The development of machines, including steam engines and the internal combustion engine, made it
possible to exploit vast new resources of energy stored in fossil fuels, specifically coal and oil. The “fossil
fuels” revolution greatly increased the energy available to human societies.
C. The development of the factory system concentrated labor in a single location and led to an increasing
degree of specialization of labor.
D. As the new methods of industrial production became more common in parts of northwestern Europe,
they spread to other parts of Europe and the United States, Russia, and Japan.
E. The “second industrial revolution” led to new steel production, chemicals, electricity and precision
machinery (1850-1900).

II. Global Trade: New global trade patterns further integrated the global economy as industrialists sought
raw materials & new markets.
A. The need for raw materials for the factories and increased food supplies for the growing population in
urban centers led to the growth of export economies around the world that specialized in mass producing
single natural resources; then using profits to purchase finished goods.
Ex: Cotton, Rubber, Palm oil, Sugar, Wheat, Meat, Guano, Metals and minerals
B. The rapid development of industrial production contributed to the decline of economically productive,
agriculturally based economies. Example: Textile production in India
C. The rapid increases in productivity caused by industrial production encouraged industrialized states to
seek out new consumer markets for their finished goods.
Ex: British & French attempts to “open up” China in 19th century (Opium Wars)
D. The need for precious metals for industrial production + global demand for gold, silver and diamonds
as forms of wealth, led to the development of extensive mining centers.
Ex: Copper mines in Mexico; Gold/diamond mines in South Africa

III. Finance: Financiers developed and expanded financial institutions to facilitate investment.
A. The ideological inspiration for economic changes lies in the development of capitalism and classical
liberalism associated with Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill.
B. Financial instruments expanded. Ex: Stock markets, Insurance, Gold standard, Limited liability
corporations
C. The global nature of trade and production contributed to the proliferation of large-scale transnational
businesses. Ex: The United Fruit Company

IV. There were major developments in transportation & communication.

Required examples: Railroads, Steamships, Telegraphs, Canals

V. Global Capitalism: The development and spread of global capitalism led to a variety of responses.
A. In industrialized states, many workers organized themselves to improve working conditions, limit
hours, and gain higher wages, while others opposed capitalist exploitation of workers by promoting
alternative visions of society. Ex: Utopian socialism, Marxism, Anarchism
B. In Qing China and the Ottoman Empire, some members of the government resisted economic change
and attempted to maintain preindustrial forms of economic production.

32
C. In a small number of states, governments promoted their own state-sponsored visions of
industrialization. Examples:
• The economic reforms of Meiji Japan
• The development of factories and railroads in Tsarist Russia
• China’s Self-Strengthening Movement
• Muhammad Ali’s dev. of a cotton textile industry in Egypt
Compare: China’s loss of sovereignty to western powers v. Japan’s successful modernization.

D. In response to criticisms of industrial global capitalism, some governments mitigated negative effects
of capitalism by promoting reforms. Examples: state pensions and public health in Germany, expanded
suffrage in Britain, public education many states

VI. Social Change: The ways in which people organized themselves into societies also underwent
significant transformations.
A. New social classes, including the middle class and the industrial working class, developed.
B. Family dynamics, gender roles, and demographics changed in response to industrialization. Rapid
urbanization that accompanied global capitalism often led to unsanitary conditions, as well as to new
forms of community.

Key Concept 5.2. Imperialism and Nation-State Formation

I. Industrializing powers established transoceanic empires.

A. States with existing colonies strengthened their control over those colonies
Examples: British in India, Dutch in Indonesia
B. European states, as well as the Americans and the Japanese, established empires throughout Asia
and the Pacific, while Spanish and Portuguese influence declined.
Examples: British, Dutch, French, German, Russian
C. Many European states used both warfare and diplomacy to establish empires in Africa.
Examples: British in West Africa, Belgium in Congo
D. In some parts of their empires, Europeans established settler colonies.
Examples: British in South Africa, Australia, NZ; French Algeria
E. In other parts of the world, industrialized states practiced economic imperialism.
Ex: British + French in China through the Opium Wars; British + U.S. investment in Latin America

II. Imperialism influenced state formation and contraction around the world.
A. The expansion of U.S. & European influence over Tokugawa Japan emergence of Meiji Japan.
B. The USA & Russia emulated European imperialism by expanding land borders/ conquering territories.
C. Anti-imperial resistance contraction of the Ottoman Empire: Est. of independent states in Balkans;
Semi-independence in Egypt; French and Italian colonies in North Africa; Later British influence in Egypt
D. New states developed on the edges of existing empires. Ex: Cherokee Nation, Siam, Hawai’i, Zulu
E. The development and spread of nationalism: German nation, Filipino nationalism, Liberian nationalism

III. Racism: New racial ideologies, especially Social Darwinism, facilitated and justified imperialism.

33
Key Concept 5.3. Nationalism, Revolution, and Reform

I. The Enlightenment: The rise and diffusion of Enlightenment thought that questioned established
traditions in all areas of life often preceded the revolutions and rebellions against existing governments.
A. Thinkers applied new ways of understanding the natural world to human relationships, encouraging
observation and inference in all spheres of life. Ex: Voltaire, Rousseau
B. Intellectuals critiqued the role that religion played in public life, stressed importance of reason as
opposed to revelation.
C. Enlightenment thinkers developed new ideas about the individual, natural rights, and the social
contract. Ex: Locke, Montesquieu
D. The ideas of Enlightenment thinkers influenced resistance to existing political authority, as reflected in
revolutionary documents. Examples: Declaration of Independence, French Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen, Bolivar’s Jamaica Letter
E. These ideas influenced many people to challenge existing notions of social relations, which led to the
expansion of rights as seen in expanded suffrage, the abolition of slavery and the end of serfdom, as
their ideas were implemented.

II. Nationalism: Beginning in the eighteenth century, peoples around the world developed a new sense
of commonality based on language, religion, social customs and territory. These newly imagined national
communities linked this identity with the borders of the state, while governments used this idea to unite
diverse populations.

III. Revolutions: Increasing discontent with imperial rule propelled reformist and revolutionary
movements.
A. Subjects challenged imperial governments. Example: The challenge of the Marathas to Mughals
B. American colonial subjects led a series of rebellions, which facilitated the emergence of independent
states in the United States, Haiti, and mainland Latin America. French subjects rebelled against their
monarchy.
C. Slave resistance challenged existing authorities in the Americas with establishment of Maroon
societies (communities of escaped slaves).
D. Increasing questions about political authority and growing nationalism contributed to anticolonial
movements. Examples: The Indian Revolt of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny); The Boxer Rebellion in China
E. Some of the rebellions were influenced by religious ideas and millenarianism.
Examples: Taiping Rebellion, Ghost Dance, Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement
F. Responses to increasingly frequent rebellions led to reforms in imperial policies.
Examples: Tanzimat in the Ottoman Empire, Self-Strengthening in China both failed

IV. New Ideologies: The global spread of European political and social thought and the increasing
number of rebellions stimulated new transnational ideologies and solidarities.
A. Discontent w/ monarchist & imperial rule led to the development of political ideologies, including
liberalism, socialism, and communism.
B. Demands for women’s suffrage and an emergent feminism challenged political and gender
hierarchies. Examples: Mary W.’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman; Olympe de Gouges’s
“Declaration of the Rights of Women”; Seneca Falls Conference in 1848

34
Key Concept 5.4. Global Migration

I. Migration Intro: Migration influenced by changes in demography in industrialized & unindustrialized

societies challenges.
A. Changes in food production & improved medical conditions significant global rise in population.
B. Migrants increasingly relocated to cities, resulting in significant global urbanization of the 19th century.

II. Causes: Migrants relocated for a variety of reasons.

A. Many individuals chose freely to relocate in search of work.
Ex: Manual laborers, professionals
B. The new global capitalist economy continued to rely on coerced & semicoerced labor migration, including
convict labor, slavery, and Chinese and Indian indentured servitude
C. While many migrants permanently relocated, a significant number of temporary and seasonal migrants
returned to their home societies.
Ex: Japanese agricultural workers in the Pacific, Lebanese merchants in Americas, Italians in Argentina

III. Responses to Migration: The large-scale nature of migration, especially in the 1800s, produced a variety
of effects and reactions to the increasingly diverse societies.
A. Due to the physical nature of the labor in demand, migrants tended to be male, leaving women to take on
new roles in the home society that had been formerly occupied by men.
B. Migrants often created ethnic enclaves in different parts of the world which helped transplant their culture
into new environments and facilitated the development of migrant support networks.
Ex: Chinese in SE Asia, Caribbean, S. America, N. America
Indians in East and southern Africa, the Caribbean, and SE Asia
C. Receiving societies did not always embrace immigrants, as seen in the various degrees of ethnic and racial
prejudice and the ways states attempted to regulate the increased flow of people across their borders.
Ex: The Chinese Exclusion Acts; the White Australia Policy

35
PERIOD 6: 1900 to Present

Key Concept 6.1 Science and the Environment

I. Researchers made rapid advances in science, assisted by the development of new technology.
A. New modes of communication & transportation virtually eliminated problem of geographic distance.
B. New scientific paradigms transformed human understanding of the world. Ex: Theory of relativity, quantum
mechanics, the Big Bang theory, psychology
C. The Green Revolution produced food for earth’s growing population as it spread chemically & genetically
enhanced forms of agriculture.
D. Medical innovations increased ability of humans to survive. Polio vaccine, antibiotics, artificial heart
E. New energy technologies raised productivity and increased the production of material goods. Ex: oil, nuclear
power.

II. Humans fundamentally changed their relationship with the environment.

A. Humans exploited and competed over the earth’s finite resources more intensely than ever before.
B. Global warming was a major consequence of the release of greenhouse gases & other pollutants into the
atmosphere.
C. Pollution threatened the world’s supply of water and clean air. Deforestation and desertification were
continued consequences of the human impact on the environment. Rates of extinction of other species
accelerated sharply.

III. Disease, scientific innovations and conflict led to demographic shifts.

A. Diseases associated with poverty (malaria, tuberculosis, cholera) persisted, while other diseases (1919
influenza pandemic, ebola, HIV/AIDS) emerged as new epidemics and threats to human survival. In addition,
changing lifestyles and increased longevity led to higher incidence of certain diseases (diabetes, heart disease,
Alzheimer’s disease).
B. More effective forms of birth control gave women greater control over fertility & transformed sexual
practices.
C. Improved military technology (tanks, airplanes or the atomic bomb) and new tactics (trench warfare,
firebombing) led to increased levels of wartime casualties (Nanjing, Dresden, Hiroshima).

Key Concept 6.2 Global Conflicts and Their Consequences

I. End of European empire: Europe dominated the global political order at the beginning of the 20th century,
but both land-based and transoceanic empires gave way to new forms of transregional political organization by
the century’s end.
A. Older land-based empires (Ottoman, Russian, Qing) collapsed due to a combination of internal and external
factors. Ex: economic hardship, political/social discontent, technological stagnation, defeat.
B. Some colonies negotiated their independence. Ex: India & Gold Coast from the British Empire.
C. Some colonies achieved independence through armed struggle. Ex: Algeria and Vietnam from the French
empire; Angola from the Portuguese empire.

II. Nationalist Ideology: Emerging ideologies of anti-imperialism contributed to the dissolution of empires.
A. Nationalist leaders in Asia and Africa challenged imperial rule.
Ex: Mohandas Gandhi in India, Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana.
B. Regional, religious and ethnic movements challenged both colonial rule and inherited imperial boundaries.
Ex: Muhammad Ali Jinnah in Pakistan, the Quebecois separatist movement in Canada or the Biafra
secessionist movement in Nigeria.
C. Transnational movements sought to unite people across national boundaries. Ex: communism, Pan-
Arabism or Pan- Africanism.
D. Within states in Africa, Asia and Latin America, movements promoted communism and socialism as a way
to redistribute land and resources.

36
III. Political changes were accompanied by major demographic and social consequences.
A. The redrawing of old colonial boundaries led to population resettlements. Ex: India/Pakistan partition, the
Zionist Jewish settlement of Palestine or the division of the Middle East into mandatory states.
B. The migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles maintained cultural and economic ties
between the colony and the metropole even after the dissolution of empires. Ex: South Asians to Britain,
Algerians to France, Filipinos to USA.
C. The proliferation of conflicts led to genocide (Armenia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Rwanda) and the
displacement of peoples resulting in refugee populations (Palestinians, Darfurians).

IV. Global war: Military conflicts occurred on an unprecedented global scale.

A. World War I and World War II were the first “total wars.” Governments used ideologies, including fascism,
nationalism and communism, to mobilize all of their state’s resources, including peoples, both in the home
countries and the colonies or former colonies for the purpose of waging war. Ex: Gurkha soldiers in India,
ANZAC troops in Australia. Governments also used a variety of strategies, including political speeches, art,
media and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize these populations.
B. The varied sources of global conflict from 1900 to 1950 included: imperialist expansion by European powers
and Japan, competition for resources, ethnic conflict, great power rivalries between Great Britain and
Germany, nationalist ideologies, and the economic crisis engendered by the Great Depression.
C. The global balance of economic and political power shifted after the end of World War II and rapidly evolved
into the Cold War. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, which led to ideological
struggles between capitalism and communism throughout the globe.
D. The Cold War produced new military alliances, including NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and promoted proxy
wars in Latin America, Africa and Asia.
E. The dissolution of the Soviet Union effectively ended the Cold War.

V. Violence: Although conflict dominated much of the 20th century, many individuals and groups opposed this
trend. Some individuals and groups, however, intensified the conflicts.
A. Groups and individuals challenged the many wars of the century. Ex: Picasso in his Guernica, the
antinuclear movement during the Cold War, Thich Quang Duc by self-immolation. Some promoted the practice
of nonviolence as a way to bring about political change. Ex: Tolstoy, Gandhi, Martin Luther King.
B. Groups and individuals opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing economic, political and social
orders. Ex: The Non-Aligned Movement, which presented an alternative political bloc to the Cold War; the
Tiananmen Square protesters for democracy in China; Anti-Apartheid Movement; or participants in the global
uprisings of 1968.
C. Militaries and militarized states often responded to the proliferation of conflicts in ways that further
intensified conflict. Ex: the promotion of military dictatorship in Chile, Spain and Uganda; the United States’
promotion of a New World Order after the Cold War; the buildup of the “military-industrial complex” and arms
trading.
D. More movements used terrorism to achieve political aims. Ex: the IRA, Al-Qaeda
E. Global conflicts had a profound influence on popular culture. Ex: Dada, James Bond, Socialist Realism,
video games.

Anti-War Images: Picasso’s Guernica, self-immolation

37
Key Concept 6.3 New Conceptualizations of Global Economy, Society and Culture

I. States, communities and individuals became increasingly interdependent, a process facilitated by

the growth of institutions of global governance.
A. New international organizations formed to maintain world peace and to facilitate international cooperation.
Ex: The League of Nations, the United Nations.
B. New economic institutions sought to spread the principles and practices associated with free market
economics throughout the world. Ex: the IMF, World Bank, WTO.
C. Humanitarian organizations developed to respond to humanitarian crises throughout the world.
Ex: UNICEF, the Red Cross, Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders, WHO.
D. Regional trade agreements created regional trading blocs designed to promote the movement of capital and
goods across national borders. Ex: European Union, NAFTA, ASEAN, Mercosur.
E. Multinational corporations began to challenge state authority and autonomy.
Ex: Royal Dutch Shell, Coca-Cola, Sony.
F. Movements throughout the world protested the inequality of environmental and economic consequences of
global integration.

II. People conceptualized society and culture in new ways; some challenged old assumptions about
race, class, gender and religion, often using new technologies to spread reconfigured traditions.
A. The notion of human rights gained traction throughout the world. Ex: The U.N. Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, women’s rights, the end of the White Australia Policy.
B. Increased interactions among diverse peoples sometimes led to the formation of new cultural identities
(such as negritude) and exclusionary reactions (such as xenophobia, race riots or citizenship restrictions).
C. Believers developed new forms of spirituality (such as New Age Religions, Hare Krishna or Falun Gong)
and chose to emphasize particular aspects of practice within existing faiths and apply them to political issues
(such as fundamentalist movements or Liberation Theology).

III. Popular and consumer culture became global.

A. Sports were more widely practiced and reflected national and social aspirations. Ex: World Cup Soccer, the
Olympics, cricket.
B. Changes in communication and transportation technology enabled the widespread diffusion of music and
film. Ex: reggae, Bollywood.

38
Chinese History Overview
Dynasty Years Characteristics/Changes
Shang 1600-1046 BCE Warrior-kings; human sacrifices to ancestors; Writing began (oracle bones)
Developed bronze, glazed pottery, silk industries; Huang He agriculture
Zhou 1045-256 BCE Invaded China from NW; claimed Mandate of Heaven
Set up a loose central government; Feudal power held by strong nobles
Decline led to Warring States Period- Confucius, Laozi
Qin 221-206 BCE Military dictatorship centralized China; Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi (Legalism)
Destroyed nobles’ feudal power; System of taxation, weights and measures,
standard writing; Great Wall (1500 miles), Terra Cotta warriors
Han 206 BCE- 220 CE Conquerors; expanded to central Asia, Indochina, Korea
Traded with Rome along Silk Roads; Wudi begins civil service exam system
based on Confucius; First paper made
Buddhism enters China in 200s from India (Silk Road); high point 300-800
Sui 589-618 Reunified China; Canal system; State support of Buddhism (Wendi)
Tang 618-906 “Golden Age” of arts and literature; Education and government reforms
Extended boundaries of empire; Alliance and peace treaties with neighbors;
tribute system; High point of influence on Japan; capital Hangzhou
Later Tang- state action against Buddhism; emergence of Neo-Confucianism
Song 960-1279 “Economic revolution”: Increased urbanization, cosmopolitan
Powerful only in southern China; nomads ruled North
Inventions: gunpowder, compass, printing
Foot binding, especially elite women; Neo-Confucianism
Yuan 1259-1368 Mongol rule; Northern China conquered by Genghis Khan
Song conquered and ruled by Kublai Khan (Genghis’ grandson)
Visited by Marco Polo trade with Europe began
Ming 1368-1644 Period of recovery from Mongol rule; capital moved to Beijing
Sponsorship of Zheng He’s voyages (1405-1433) ended, evidence destroyed
Growing isolation from world trade, construction of Great Wall
Trade with Europeans along Indian Ocean; arrival of Jesuit missionaries
Qing 1644-1911 Ming conquered by Manchus from NW China
Period of expansion into Central Asia, Tibet largest land borders
Policies of discrimination against Han Chinese (dual appointments)
1800s disasters: Opium Wars, Taiping Rebellion, Boxer Rebellion (fails)
Warlord/ 1911-1949 1911 Qing overthrown by nationalists in revolution; leader- Sun Yat-Sen
Republic Nationalists (Chiang Kai-Shek) v. Communists (Mao Zedong)
Invaded by Japan in 1937 during WWII
1946: Civil War resumes
Communist 1949- Present Mao declares victory; proclaims People’s Republic of China
China Nationalists forced to flee to Taiwan (island)
Mao’s policies: Great Leap Forward (similar to Stalin’s Five Year Plans),
Cultural Revolution to go after communism’s enemies
After Mao’s death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping emerges as leader – pursues policy
of economic liberalization, leading to rapid economic growth
1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre – students protesting for democracy
slaughtered by military
Song: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han (X2), Sui, Tang, Song (X2),
Yuan, Ming, Qing, Republic (X2), Mao Zedong (X2)
39
Political, Economic, and Social Systems (The “-isms”)

Feudalism Feudalism usually refers to the political, social, and

economic system of medieval Europe derived from
the holding of land in exchange for labor or service.
Feudalism is politically decentralized. Economically,
production occurs on the manor. Socially, it creates
three classes: the nobility, the clergy, and the
peasantry. Feudalism also developed in Japan.

Nationalism Nationalism involves identifying with one's nation,

which can be defined by a common ethnic, cultural, or
religious identity, or common values and history. The
adoption of national identity has commonly been the
result of dissatisfaction with foreign rule or disunity
and has often involved revolutions. An important
belief of nationalism is that the nation deserves a
discrete territory and government (state) controlled by
the people. National flags, anthems are considered
important symbols of the nation.
Imperialism Imperialism is the practice of extending the rule or
authority of an empire or nation over foreign
countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies or
dependencies (protectorates and spheres of
influence). Imperialism is often motivated by
nationalism, economic competition, and feelings of
racial and cultural superiority.
Fascism A system of government most closely associated with
Benito Mussolini of Italy that combines: totalitarian
dictatorship, aggressive nationalism (including
imperialism and xenophobia), glorification of politics,
and single-party rule.
Mercantilism Mercantilism was the dominant economic system of
absolute monarchies from 1500 to 1800, whereby
monopolies and regulations were put in place to
extract wealth from colonies, thereby benefiting the
mother country.

Capitalism Capitalists believe in private ownership of resources

and favor a system of competition in the free market
to create economic growth and wealth, thus helping
the nation’s overall prosperity. Since the Industrial
Revolution, global capitalism has predominated.

Socialism Socialists are motivated by the desire to improve the

quality of life for all members of society. They believe
in strong state direction in political and economic
policy, and redistribution of resources to address
inequalities inherent in a free-market economy.
Communism Communists believe that the capitalist system is
damaging to the interests of the masses, and that
workers must unite and overturn it by revolutionary
means. Communists also believe in the state
ownership of all land, natural resources and industry.

40
World Religions Chart

41
Suggested Primary Sources
Period 1 (Up to 600 B.C.E.)
Rig Veda poems on Aryan culture
Code of Hammurabi, first recorded code of laws
Epic of Gilgamesh, Sumerian creation myth
The Book of the Dead, ancient Egyptian funeral texts

Period 2 (600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E.)

Lao Tzu, Daodejing Daoist teachings
Confucius, Annalects Confucian sayings
Herodotus, Histories on the Greco-Persian Wars
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, about the war between Athens and Sparta
Plato, Republic, about the ideal government
Aristotle, Politics

Period 3 (600 to 1450)

The Thousand and One Nights book of Arabian cultural stories
The Epic of Sundiata West African epic poem
Lady Murasaki, The Tale of Genji story about a Japanese court official
The Chronicle of Jean de Venette account of a European on the bubonic plague
Ibn Al-Wardi, "Risalha al-Naba", account of a Muslim on the bubonic plague

Period 4 (1450 to 1750)

John Locke Two Treatises on Government, about natural human rights
Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, about structure of government
Jean Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Foundations of Inequality, about society in politics
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, on capitalist theory
Hobbes, Leviathan, on the problems of government and society
Ibn Khaldun, "On the Rise and Decline of Empires", on the history of the Ottoman Empire

Period 5 (1750 to 1900)

Rudyard Kipling, White Man's Burden, poem about European imperialism
National Assembly, The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, on French Revolution values
Olympe De Gouges' The Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen
Thomas Paine, "Rights of Man" on individual freedom
Mary Wollstonecraft, "Vindication of the Rights of Women", on gender inequality
Elisa Greathed, "An Account of the Opening of the Indian Mutiny"
John Stuart Mill, "On Liberty"
Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto, on communist theory
Liang Qichao, A People Made New, on the westernization and modernization of China

Period 6 (1900 to the present)

Aime Cesaire, Return to My Native Land poem about First World War
Treaty of Versailles, outlining the plan for the end of the First World War
Mohandas Gandhi, "Quit India" speech on Indian independence
Winston Churchill, "The Iron Curtain Speech" on Cold War
United Nations, International Declaration of Human Rights in response to 20th century genocides
Henri Alleg, The Question, on the French use of torture during the French-Algerian War
Lech Walesa, "Nobel Peace Prize Lecture" on the Solidarity Movement

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Must Know Years
Period 1: Up to 600 B.C.E. Period 5: 1750 – 1900
8000 B.C.E. - Neolithic Revolution Mid 1700s - Industrial Revolution begins in Britain
3000 B.C.E. – First state-based civilizations 1756 - 1763 - 7 Years War / French and Indian War
1500 B.C.E. - Iron Age 1776 - American Revolution
1789 - French Revolution begins
Period 2: 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. 1804 - Haitian independence
500s B.C.E. - life of Buddha, Confucius, Laozi 1815 - Congress of Vienna/ def. of Napoleon
400s B.C.E. - Greek Golden Age 1820s - Independence in Latin America
323 B.C.E. - Alexander the Great 1839 - 1st Opium War in China
221 B.C.E. - Qin unified China 1848 - European revolutions / Comm. Manifesto
32 C.E. - Beginnings of Christianity 1853 - Commodore Perry opens Japan
180 C.E. - end of Pax Romana 1857 – Indian Rebellion (Sepoy Mutiny)
220 C.E. - end of Han Dynasty 1861 - End of Russian serfdom / Italian unification
333 - Roman capital moved to Constantinople 1863 - Emancipation Proclamation in US
476 - Fall of Rome 1871 - German unification
527 - Justinian rule of Byzantine Empire 1885 - Berlin Conference - division of Africa
1898 - Spanish-American War- U.S. gets territory
Period 3: 600-1450 1899 - Boer War - British in control of South Africa
622 - Founding of Islam 1905 - Russo-Japanese war
732 - Battle of Tours 1910-1920 - Mexican Revolution
1054 - Great Schism (RCC & EOC) 1911 - Chinese Revolution (Qing overthrown)
1066 - Norman conquest of England
1071 - Battle of Manzikert (Seljuk Turks def. Byz) Period 6: 1900 to the present
1095 - 1st Crusade 1914 – WWI begins
1258 - Mongols sack Baghdad 1917 - Russian Revolution
1271-1295 - Marco Polo’s travels 1919 - Treaty of Versailles - end of WWI
1324 - Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage 1929 - Stock market crash
1325-1349 - travels of Ibn Battuta 1931 - Japanese invasion of Manchuria
1347-1348 - Bubonic plague in Europe 1935 - Italian invasion of Ethiopia
1405-1433 - Zheng He’s voyages 1939 - German blitzkrieg in Poland
1941 - Pearl Harbor, entry of US into WWII
Period 4: 1450 - 1750 1945 - End of WWII
1453 - Ottomans capture Constantinople 1947 - Independence & partition of India
1488 - Dias rounded Cape of Good Hope 1948 - Birth of Israel
1492 - Columbus / Reconquista of Spain 1949 - Chinese Communist Revolution
1502 - 1st Slaves to Americas 1950 - 1953 - Korean War
1517 - Martin Luther / 95 theses 1956 – Nasser nationalizes Suez Canal
1521 - Cortez conquered the Aztecs 1959 - Cuban Revolution
1533 - Pizarro toppled the Inca 1962 - Cuban missile crisis
1571 - Battle of Lepanto, (naval def. of Ottomans) 1967 - 6-Day War / Chinese Cultural Revolution
1588 - defeat of the Spanish Armada by the British 1979 - Iranian Revolution
1600 - Battle of Sekigahara – Tokugawa unifies 1989 - Tiananmen Square / fall of Berlin Wall
1607 – Jamestown settled 1991 - fall of USSR / 1st Gulf war
1618-1648 - 30 years war 1994 – Rwanda genocide; Mandela in S. Africa
1683 - unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna 2001 - 9/11 Attacks
1689 - Glorious Revolution / English Bill of Rights 2003 – U.S. invasion of Iraq

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