Mathematics

Mathematics is an area of knowledge that

includes the topics of numbers, formulas
and related structures, shapes and the
spaces in which they are contained, and
quantities and their changes. These topics
are represented in modern mathematics
with the major subdisciplines of number
theory,[1] algebra,[2] geometry,[1] and
analysis,[3][4] respectively. There is no
general consensus among
mathematicians about a common
definition for their academic discipline.

Most mathematical activity involves the

discovery of properties of abstract objects
and the use of pure reason to prove them.
These objects consist of either
abstractions from nature or—in modern
mathematics—entities that are stipulated
to have certain properties, called axioms.
A proof consists of a succession of
applications of deductive rules to already
established results. These results include
previously proved theorems, axioms, and—
in case of abstraction from nature—some
basic properties that are considered true
starting points of the theory under
consideration.[5]

Mathematics is essential in the natural

sciences, engineering, medicine, finance,
computer science and the social sciences.
Although mathematics is extensively used
for modeling phenomena, the fundamental
truths of mathematics are independent
from any scientific experimentation. Some
areas of mathematics, such as statistics
and game theory, are developed in close
correlation with their applications and are
often grouped under applied mathematics.
Other areas are developed independently
from any application (and are therefore
called pure mathematics), but often later
find practical applications.[6][7] The
problem of integer factorization, for
example, which goes back to Euclid in 300
BC, had no practical application before its
use in the RSA cryptosystem, now widely
used for the security of computer
networks.

Historically, the concept of a proof and its

associated mathematical rigour first
appeared in Greek mathematics, most
notably in Euclid's Elements.[8] Since its
beginning, mathematics was essentially
divided into geometry and arithmetic (the
manipulation of natural numbers and
fractions), until the 16th and 17th
centuries, when algebra[a] and infinitesimal
calculus were introduced as new areas.
Since then, the interaction between
mathematical innovations and scientific
discoveries has led to a rapid lockstep
increase in the development of both.[9] At
the end of the 19th century, the
foundational crisis of mathematics led to
the systematization of the axiomatic
method,[10] which heralded a dramatic
increase in the number of mathematical
areas and their fields of application. The
contemporary Mathematics Subject
Classification lists more than 60 first-level
areas of mathematics.
Etymology
The word mathematics comes from
Ancient Greek máthēma (μάθημα),
meaning "that which is learnt",[11] "what
one gets to know", hence also "study" and
"science". The word came to have the
narrower and more technical meaning of
"mathematical study" even in Classical
times.[12] Its adjective is mathēmatikós
(μαθηματικός), meaning "related to
learning" or "studious", which likewise
further came to mean "mathematical".[13]
In particular, mathēmatikḗ tékhnē
(μαθηματικὴ τέχνη; Latin: ars
mathematica) meant "the mathematical
art".[11]

Similarly, one of the two main schools of

thought in Pythagoreanism was known as
the mathēmatikoi (μαθηματικοί)—which at
the time meant "learners" rather than
"mathematicians" in the modern sense.
The Pythagoreans were likely the first to
constrain the use of the word to just the
study of arithmetic and geometry. By the
time of Aristotle (384–322 BC) this
meaning was fully established.[14]

In Latin, and in English until around 1700,

the term mathematics more commonly
meant "astrology" (or sometimes
"astronomy") rather than "mathematics";
the meaning gradually changed to its
present one from about 1500 to 1800. This
change has resulted in several
mistranslations: For example, Saint
Augustine's warning that Christians should
beware of mathematici, meaning
"astrologers", is sometimes mistranslated
as a condemnation of mathematicians.[15]

The apparent plural form in English goes

back to the Latin neuter plural
mathematica (Cicero), based on the Greek
plural ta mathēmatiká (τὰ μαθηματικά)
and means roughly "all things
mathematical", although it is plausible that
English borrowed only the adjective
mathematic(al) and formed the noun
mathematics anew, after the pattern of
physics and metaphysics, inherited from
Greek.[16] In English, the noun mathematics
takes a singular verb. It is often shortened
to maths or, in North America, math.[17]

Areas of mathematics
Before the Renaissance, mathematics was
divided into two main areas: arithmetic—
regarding the manipulation of numbers,
and geometry, regarding the study of
shapes.[18] Some types of pseudoscience,
such as numerology and astrology, were
not then clearly distinguished from
mathematics.[19]

During the Renaissance, two more areas

appeared. Mathematical notation led to
algebra which, roughly speaking, consists
of the study and the manipulation of
formulas. Calculus, consisting of the two
subfields differential calculus and integral
calculus, is the study of continuous
functions, which model the typically
nonlinear relationships between varying
quantities, as represented by variables.
This division into four main areas–
arithmetic, geometry, algebra, calculus[20]–
endured until the end of the 19th century.
Areas such as celestial mechanics and
solid mechanics were then studied by
mathematicians, but now are considered
as belonging to physics.[21] The subject of
combinatorics has been studied for much
of recorded history, yet did not become a
separate branch of mathematics until the
seventeenth century.[22]

At the end of the 19th century, the

foundational crisis in mathematics and the
resulting systematization of the axiomatic
method led to an explosion of new areas
of mathematics.[23][10] The 2020
Mathematics Subject Classification
contains no less than sixty-three first-level
areas.[24] Some of these areas correspond
to the older division, as is true regarding
number theory (the modern name for
higher arithmetic) and geometry. Several
other first-level areas have "geometry" in
their names or are otherwise commonly
considered part of geometry. Algebra and
calculus do not appear as first-level areas
but are respectively split into several first-
level areas. Other first-level areas emerged
during the 20th century or had not
previously been considered as
mathematics, such as mathematical logic
and foundations.[25]
Number theory

This is the Ulam spiral, which illustrates the distribution of prime numbers. The dark diagonal lines in the spiral hint at the
hypothesized approximate independence between being prime and being a value of a quadratic polynomial, a conjecture
now known as Hardy and Littlewood's Conjecture F.

Number theory began with the

manipulation of numbers, that is, natural
numbers and later expanded to
integers and rational numbers
Number theory was once called arithmetic,
but nowadays this term is mostly used for
numerical calculations.[26] Number theory
dates back to ancient Babylon and
probably China. Two prominent early
number theorists were Euclid of ancient
Greece and Diophantus of Alexandria.[27]
The modern study of number theory in its
abstract form is largely attributed to Pierre
de Fermat and Leonhard Euler. The field
came to full fruition with the contributions
of Adrien-Marie Legendre and Carl
Friedrich Gauss.[28]

Many easily stated number problems have

solutions that require sophisticated
methods, often from across mathematics.
A prominent example is Fermat's Last
Theorem. This conjecture was stated in
1637 by Pierre de Fermat, but it was
proved only in 1994 by Andrew Wiles, who
used tools including scheme theory from
algebraic geometry, category theory, and
homological algebra.[29] Another example
is Goldbach's conjecture, which asserts
that every even integer greater than 2 is
the sum of two prime numbers. Stated in
1742 by Christian Goldbach, it remains
unproven despite considerable effort.[30]

Number theory includes several subareas,

including analytic number theory, algebraic
number theory, geometry of numbers
(method oriented), diophantine equations,
and transcendence theory (problem
oriented).[25]

Geometry

On the surface of a sphere, Euclidian geometry only applies as a local approximation. For larger scales the sum of the
angles of a triangle is not equal to 180°.

Geometry is one of the oldest branches of

mathematics. It started with empirical
recipes concerning shapes, such as lines,
angles and circles, which were developed
mainly for the needs of surveying and
architecture, but has since blossomed out
into many other subfields.[31]

A fundamental innovation was the ancient

Greeks' introduction of the concept of
proofs, which require that every assertion
must be proved. For example, it is not
sufficient to verify by measurement that,
say, two lengths are equal; their equality
must be proven via reasoning from
previously accepted results (theorems)
and a few basic statements. The basic
statements are not subject to proof
because they are self-evident (postulates),
or are part of the definition of the subject
of study (axioms). This principle,
foundational for all mathematics, was first
elaborated for geometry, and was
systematized by Euclid around 300 BC in
his book Elements.[32][33]

The resulting Euclidean geometry is the

study of shapes and their arrangements
constructed from lines, planes and circles
in the Euclidean plane (plane geometry)
and the three-dimensional Euclidean
space.[b][31]

Euclidean geometry was developed

without change of methods or scope until
the 17th century, when René Descartes
introduced what is now called Cartesian
coordinates. This constituted a major
change of paradigm: Instead of defining
real numbers as lengths of line segments
(see number line), it allowed the
representation of points using their
coordinates, which are numbers. Algebra
(and later, calculus) can thus be used to
solve geometrical problems. Geometry
was split into two new subfields: synthetic
geometry, which uses purely geometrical
methods, and analytic geometry, which
uses coordinates systemically.[34]

Analytic geometry allows the study of

curves unrelated to circles and lines. Such
curves can be defined as the graph of
functions, the study of which led to
differential geometry. They can also be
defined as implicit equations, often
polynomial equations (which spawned
algebraic geometry). Analytic geometry
also makes it possible to consider
Euclidean spaces of higher than three
dimensions.[31]

In the 19th century, mathematicians

discovered non-Euclidean geometries,
which do not follow the parallel postulate.
By questioning that postulate's truth, this
discovery has been viewed as joining
Russell's paradox in revealing the
foundational crisis of mathematics. This
aspect of the crisis was solved by
systematizing the axiomatic method, and
adopting that the truth of the chosen
axioms is not a mathematical
problem.[35][10] In turn, the axiomatic
method allows for the study of various
geometries obtained either by changing
the axioms or by considering properties
that do not change under specific
transformations of the space.[36]

Today's subareas of geometry include:[25]

Projective geometry, introduced in the

16th century by Girard Desargues,
extends Euclidean geometry by adding
points at infinity at which parallel lines
intersect. This simplifies many aspects
of classical geometry by unifying the
treatments for intersecting and parallel
lines.
Affine geometry, the study of properties
relative to parallelism and independent
from the concept of length.
Differential geometry, the study of
curves, surfaces, and their
generalizations, which are defined using
differentiable functions.
Manifold theory, the study of shapes
that are not necessarily embedded in a
larger space.
Riemannian geometry, the study of
distance properties in curved spaces.
Algebraic geometry, the study of curves,
surfaces, and their generalizations,
which are defined using polynomials.
Topology, the study of properties that
are kept under continuous
deformations.
Algebraic topology, the use in
topology of algebraic methods,
mainly homological algebra.
Discrete geometry, the study of finite
configurations in geometry.
 Convex geometry, the study of convex
sets, which takes its importance from its
applications in optimization.
Complex geometry, the geometry
obtained by replacing real numbers with
complex numbers.

Algebra

The quadratic formula, which concisely expresses the solutions of all quadratic equations
The Rubik's Cube group is a concrete application of group theory[37]

Algebra is the art of manipulating

equations and formulas. Diophantus (3rd
century) and al-Khwarizmi (9th century)
were the two main precursors of
algebra.[38][39] Diophantus solved some
equations involving unknown natural
numbers by deducing new relations until
he obtained the solution. Al-Khwarizmi
introduced systematic methods for
transforming equations, such as moving a
term from one side of an equation into the
other side. The term algebra is derived
from the Arabic word al-jabr meaning 'the
reunion of broken parts'[40] that he used for
naming one of these methods in the title
of his main treatise.

Algebra became an area in its own right

only with François Viète (1540–1603), who
introduced the use of variables for
representing unknown or unspecified
numbers.[41] Variables allow
mathematicians to describe the
operations that have to be done on the
numbers represented using mathematical
formulas.

Until the 19th century, algebra consisted

mainly of the study of linear equations
(presently linear algebra), and polynomial
equations in a single unknown, which were
called algebraic equations (a term still in
use, although it may be ambiguous).
During the 19th century, mathematicians
began to use variables to represent things
other than numbers (such as matrices,
modular integers, and geometric
transformations), on which generalizations
of arithmetic operations are often valid.[42]
The concept of algebraic structure
addresses this, consisting of a set whose
elements are unspecified, of operations
acting on the elements of the set, and
rules that these operations must follow.
The scope of algebra thus grew to include
the study of algebraic structures. This
object of algebra was called modern
algebra or abstract algebra, as established
by the influence and works of Emmy
Noether.[43] (The latter term appears
mainly in an educational context, in
opposition to elementary algebra, which is
concerned with the older way of
manipulating formulas.)
Some types of algebraic structures have
useful and often fundamental properties,
in many areas of mathematics. Their study
became autonomous parts of algebra, and
include:[25]

group theory;
field theory;
vector spaces, whose study is
essentially the same as linear algebra;
ring theory;
commutative algebra, which is the study
of commutative rings, includes the study
of polynomials, and is a foundational
part of algebraic geometry;
 homological algebra;
Lie algebra and Lie group theory;
Boolean algebra, which is widely used
for the study of the logical structure of
computers.

The study of types of algebraic structures

as mathematical objects is the purpose of
universal algebra and category theory.[44]
The latter applies to every mathematical
structure (not only algebraic ones). At its
origin, it was introduced, together with
homological algebra for allowing the
algebraic study of non-algebraic objects
such as topological spaces; this particular
area of application is called algebraic
topology.[45]

Calculus and analysis

A Cauchy sequence consists of elements that become arbitrarily close to each other as the sequence progresses (from
left to right).

Calculus, formerly called infinitesimal

calculus, was introduced independently
and simultaneously by 17th-century
mathematicians Newton and Leibniz.[46] It
is fundamentally the study of the
relationship of variables that depend on
each other. Calculus was expanded in the
18th century by Euler with the introduction
of the concept of a function and many
other results.[47] Presently, "calculus" refers
mainly to the elementary part of this
theory, and "analysis" is commonly used
for advanced parts.

Analysis is further subdivided into real

analysis, where variables represent real
numbers, and complex analysis, where
variables represent complex numbers.
Analysis includes many subareas shared
by other areas of mathematics which
include:[25]
Multivariable calculus
Functional analysis, where variables
represent varying functions;
Integration, measure theory and
potential theory, all strongly related with
probability theory on a continuum;
Ordinary differential equations;
Partial differential equations;
Numerical analysis, mainly devoted to
the computation on computers of
solutions of ordinary and partial
differential equations that arise in many
applications.
Discrete mathematics

A diagram representing a two-state Markov chain. The states are represented by 'A' and 'E'. The numbers are the
probability of flipping the state.

Discrete mathematics, broadly speaking, is

the study of individual, countable
mathematical objects. An example is the
set of all integers.[48] Because the objects
of study here are discrete, the methods of
calculus and mathematical analysis do not
directly apply.[c] Algorithms—especially
their implementation and computational
complexity—play a major role in discrete
mathematics.[49]

The four color theorem and optimal sphere

packing were two major problems of
discrete mathematics solved in the
second half of the 20th century.[50] The P
versus NP problem, which remains open to
this day, is also important for discrete
mathematics, since its solution would
potentially impact a large number of
computationally difficult problems.[51]

Discrete mathematics includes:[25]

Combinatorics, the art of enumerating
mathematical objects that satisfy some
given constraints. Originally, these
objects were elements or subsets of a
given set; this has been extended to
various objects, which establishes a
strong link between combinatorics and
other parts of discrete mathematics. For
example, discrete geometry includes
counting configurations of geometric
shapes
Graph theory and hypergraphs
Coding theory, including error correcting
codes and a part of cryptography
Matroid theory
 Discrete geometry
Discrete probability distributions
Game theory (although continuous
games are also studied, most common
games, such as chess and poker are
discrete)
Discrete optimization, including
combinatorial optimization, integer
programming, constraint programming

Mathematical logic and set theory

The Venn diagram is a commonly used method to illustrate the relations between sets.

The two subjects of mathematical logic

and set theory have belonged to
mathematics since the end of the 19th
century.[52][53] Before this period, sets were
not considered to be mathematical
objects, and logic, although used for
mathematical proofs, belonged to
philosophy and was not specifically
studied by mathematicians.[54]

Before Cantor's study of infinite sets,

mathematicians were reluctant to consider
actually infinite collections, and
considered infinity to be the result of
endless enumeration. Cantor's work
offended many mathematicians not only
by considering actually infinite sets[55] but
by showing that this implies different sizes
of infinity, per Cantor's diagonal argument.
This led to the controversy over Cantor's
set theory.[56]

In the same period, various areas of

mathematics concluded the former
intuitive definitions of the basic
mathematical objects were insufficient for
ensuring mathematical rigour. Examples
of such intuitive definitions are "a set is a
collection of objects", "natural number is
what is used for counting", "a point is a
shape with a zero length in every
direction", "a curve is a trace left by a
moving point", etc.

This became the foundational crisis of

mathematics.[57] It was eventually solved
in mainstream mathematics by
systematizing the axiomatic method
inside a formalized set theory. Roughly
speaking, each mathematical object is
defined by the set of all similar objects and
the properties that these objects must
have.[23] For example, in Peano arithmetic,
the natural numbers are defined by "zero is
a number", "each number has a unique
successor", "each number but zero has a
unique predecessor", and some rules of
reasoning.[58] This mathematical
abstraction from reality is embodied in the
modern philosophy of formalism, as
founded by David Hilbert around 1910.[59]

The "nature" of the objects defined this

way is a philosophical problem that
mathematicians leave to philosophers,
even if many mathematicians have
opinions on this nature, and use their
opinion—sometimes called "intuition"—to
guide their study and proofs. The
approach allows considering "logics" (that
is, sets of allowed deducing rules),
theorems, proofs, etc. as mathematical
objects, and to prove theorems about
them. For example, Gödel's
incompleteness theorems assert, roughly
speaking that, in every consistent formal
system that contains the natural numbers,
there are theorems that are true (that is
provable in a stronger system), but not
provable inside the system.[60] This
approach to the foundations of
mathematics was challenged during the
first half of the 20th century by
mathematicians led by Brouwer, who
promoted intuitionistic logic, which
explicitly lacks the law of excluded
middle.[61][62]
These problems and debates led to a wide
expansion of mathematical logic, with
subareas such as model theory (modeling
some logical theories inside other
theories), proof theory, type theory,
computability theory and computational
complexity theory.[25] Although these
aspects of mathematical logic were
introduced before the rise of computers,
their use in compiler design, program
certification, proof assistants and other
aspects of computer science, contributed
in turn to the expansion of these logical
theories.[63]
Statistics and other decision sciences

Whatever the form of a random population distribution (μ), the sampling mean (x̄) tends to a Gaussian distribution and its
variance (σ) is given by the central limit theorem of probability theory.[64]

The field of statistics is a mathematical

application that is employed for the
collection and processing of data
samples, using procedures based on
mathematical methods especially
probability theory. Statisticians generate
data with random sampling or randomized
experiments.[65] The design of a statistical
sample or experiment determines the
analytical methods that will be used.
Analysis of data from observational
studies is done using statistical models
and the theory of inference, using model
selection and estimation. The models and
consequential predictions should then be
tested against new data.[d]

Statistical theory studies decision

problems such as minimizing the risk
(expected loss) of a statistical action,
such as using a procedure in, for example,
parameter estimation, hypothesis testing,
and selecting the best. In these traditional
areas of mathematical statistics, a
statistical-decision problem is formulated
by minimizing an objective function, like
expected loss or cost, under specific
constraints. For example, designing a
survey often involves minimizing the cost
of estimating a population mean with a
given level of confidence.[66] Because of
its use of optimization, the mathematical
theory of statistics overlaps with other
decision sciences, such as operations
research, control theory, and mathematical
economics.[67]
Computational mathematics

Computational mathematics is the study

of mathematical problems that are
typically too large for human, numerical
capacity.[68][69] Numerical analysis studies
methods for problems in analysis using
functional analysis and approximation
theory; numerical analysis broadly
includes the study of approximation and
discretization with special focus on
rounding errors.[70] Numerical analysis
and, more broadly, scientific computing
also study non-analytic topics of
mathematical science, especially
algorithmic-matrix-and-graph theory. Other
areas of computational mathematics
include computer algebra and symbolic
computation.

History

Ancient

The history of mathematics is an ever-

growing series of abstractions.
Evolutionarily speaking, the first
abstraction to ever be discovered, one
shared by many animals,[71] was probably
that of numbers: the realization that, for
example, a collection of two apples and a
collection of two oranges (say) have
something in common, namely that there
are two of them. As evidenced by tallies
found on bone, in addition to recognizing
how to count physical objects, prehistoric
peoples may have also known how to
count abstract quantities, like time—days,
seasons, or years.[72][73]

The Babylonian mathematical tablet Plimpton 322, dated to 1800 BC

Evidence for more complex mathematics

does not appear until around 3000 BC,
when the Babylonians and Egyptians
began using arithmetic, algebra, and
geometry for taxation and other financial
calculations, for building and construction,
and for astronomy.[74] The oldest
mathematical texts from Mesopotamia
and Egypt are from 2000 to 1800 BC.
Many early texts mention Pythagorean
triples and so, by inference, the
Pythagorean theorem seems to be the
most ancient and widespread
mathematical concept after basic
arithmetic and geometry. It is in
Babylonian mathematics that elementary
arithmetic (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division) first appear in
the archaeological record. The
Babylonians also possessed a place-value
system and used a sexagesimal numeral
system which is still in use today for
measuring angles and time.[75]

In the 6th century BC, Greek mathematics

began to emerge as a distinct discipline
and some Ancient Greeks such as the
Pythagoreans appeared to have
considered it a subject in its own right.[76]
Around 300 BC, Euclid organized
mathematical knowledge by way of
postulates and first principles, which
evolved into the axiomatic method that is
used in mathematics today, consisting of
definition, axiom, theorem, and proof.[77]
His book, Elements, is widely considered
the most successful and influential
textbook of all time.[78] The greatest
mathematician of antiquity is often held to
be Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of
Syracuse.[79] He developed formulas for
calculating the surface area and volume of
solids of revolution and used the method
of exhaustion to calculate the area under
the arc of a parabola with the summation
of an infinite series, in a manner not too
dissimilar from modern calculus.[80] Other
notable achievements of Greek
mathematics are conic sections
(Apollonius of Perga, 3rd century BC),[81]
trigonometry (Hipparchus of Nicaea, 2nd
century BC),[82] and the beginnings of
algebra (Diophantus, 3rd century AD).[83]

The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD

The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the

rules for the use of its operations, in use
throughout the world today, evolved over
the course of the first millennium AD in
India and were transmitted to the Western
world via Islamic mathematics.[84] Other
notable developments of Indian
mathematics include the modern
definition and approximation of sine and
cosine, and an early form of infinite
series.[85][86]

Medieval and later

A page from al-Khwārizmī's Algebra

During the Golden Age of Islam, especially

during the 9th and 10th centuries,
mathematics saw many important
innovations building on Greek
mathematics. The most notable
achievement of Islamic mathematics was
the development of algebra. Other
achievements of the Islamic period include
advances in spherical trigonometry and
the addition of the decimal point to the
Arabic numeral system.[87] Many notable
mathematicians from this period were
Persian, such as Al-Khwarismi, Omar
Khayyam and Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.[88] The
Greek and Arabic mathematical texts were
in turn translated to Latin during the
Middle Ages and made available in
Europe.[89]
During the early modern period,
mathematics began to develop at an
accelerating pace in Western Europe, with
innovations that revolutionized
mathematics, such as the introduction of
variables and symbolic notation by
François Viète (1540–1603), the
introduction of coordinates by René
Descartes (1596–1650) for reducing
geometry to algebra, and the development
of calculus by Isaac Newton (1642–
1726/27) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646–
1716) in the 17th century. Leonhard Euler
(1707–1783), the most notable
mathematician of the 18th century, unified
these innovations into a single corpus with
a standardized terminology, and
completed them with the discovery and
the proof of numerous theorems. Perhaps
the foremost mathematician of the 19th
century was the German mathematician
Carl Gauss, who made numerous
contributions to fields such as algebra,
analysis, differential geometry, matrix
theory, number theory, and statistics.[90] In
the early 20th century, Kurt Gödel
transformed mathematics by publishing
his incompleteness theorems, which show
in part that any consistent axiomatic
system—if powerful enough to describe
arithmetic—will contain true propositions
that cannot be proved.[60]
Mathematics has since been greatly
extended, and there has been a fruitful
interaction between mathematics and
science, to the benefit of both.
Mathematical discoveries continue to be
made to this very day. According to
Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006
issue of the Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society, "The number of
papers and books included in the
Mathematical Reviews database since
1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is
now more than 1.9 million, and more than
75 thousand items are added to the
database each year. The overwhelming
majority of works in this ocean contain
new mathematical theorems and their
proofs."[91]

Symbolic notation and

terminology

An explanation of the sigma (Σ) summation notation

Mathematical notation is widely used in

science and engineering for representing
complex concepts and properties in a
concise, unambiguous, and accurate way.
This notation consists of symbols used for
representing operations, unspecified
numbers, relations and any other
mathematical objects, and then
assembling them into expressions and
formulas.[92] More precisely, numbers and
other mathematical objects are
represented by symbols called variables,
which are generally Latin or Greek letters,
and often include subscripts. Operation
and relations are generally represented by
specific symbols or glyphs,[93] such as +
(plus), × (multiplication), (integral), =
(equal), and < (less than).[94] All these
symbols are generally grouped according
to specific rules to form expressions and
formulas.[95] Normally, expressions and
formulas do not appear alone, but are
included in sentences of the current
language, where expressions play the role
of noun phrases and formulas play the role
of clauses.

Mathematics has developed a rich

terminology covering a broad range of
fields that study the properties of various
abstract, idealized objects and how they
interact. It is based on rigorous definitions
that provide a standard foundation for
communication. An axiom or postulate is
a mathematical statement that is taken to
be true without need of proof. If a
mathematical statement has yet to be
proven (or disproven), it is termed a
conjecture. Through a series of rigorous
arguments employing deductive
reasoning, a statement that is proven to be
true becomes a theorem. A specialized
theorem that is mainly used to prove
another theorem is called a lemma. A
proven instance that forms part of a more
general finding is termed a corollary.[96]

Numerous technical terms used in

mathematics are neologisms, such as
polynomial and homeomorphism.[97] Other
technical terms are words of the common
language that are used in an accurate
meaning that may differs slightly from
their common meaning. For example, in
mathematics, "or" means "one, the other or
both", while, in common language, it is
either ambiguous or means "one or the
other but not both" (in mathematics, the
latter is called "exclusive or"). Finally, many
mathematical terms are common words
that are used with a completely different
meaning.[98] This may lead to sentences
that are correct and true mathematical
assertions, but appear to be nonsense to
people who do not have the required
background. For example, "every free
module is flat" and "a field is always a
ring".
Relationship with sciences
Mathematics is used in most sciences for
modeling phenomena, which then allows
predictions to be made from experimental
laws.[99] The independence of
mathematical truth from any
experimentation implies that the accuracy
of such predictions depends only on the
adequacy of the model.[100] Inaccurate
predictions, rather than being caused by
invalid mathematical concepts, imply the
need to change the mathematical model
used.[101] For example, the perihelion
precession of Mercury could only be
explained after the emergence of
Einstein's general relativity, which replaced
Newton's law of gravitation as a better
mathematical model.[102]

There is still a philosophical debate

whether mathematics is a science.
However, in practice, mathematicians are
typically grouped with scientists, and
mathematics shares much in common
with the physical sciences. Like them, it is
falsifiable, which means in mathematics
that, if a result or a theory is wrong, this
can be proved by providing a
counterexample. Similarly as in science,
theories and results (theorems) are often
obtained from experimentation.[103] In
mathematics, the experimentation may
consist of computation on selected
examples or of the study of figures or
other representations of mathematical
objects (often mind representations
without physical support). For example,
when asked how he came about his
theorems, Gauss once replied "durch
planmässiges Tattonieren" (through
systematic experimentation).[104] However,
some authors emphasize that
mathematics differs from the modern
notion of science by not relying on
empirical evidence.[105][106][107][108]
Pure and applied mathematics

Isaac Newton (left) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus.

Until the 19th century, the development of

mathematics in the West was mainly
motivated by the needs of technology and
science, and there was no clear distinction
between pure and applied
mathematics.[109] For example, the natural
numbers and arithmetic were introduced
for the need of counting, and geometry
was motivated by surveying, architecture
and astronomy. Later, Isaac Newton
introduced infinitesimal calculus for
explaining the movement of the planets
with his law of gravitation. Moreover, most
mathematicians were also scientists, and
many scientists were also
mathematicians.[110] However, a notable
exception occurred with the tradition of
pure mathematics in Ancient Greece.[111]

In the 19th century, mathematicians such

as Karl Weierstrass and Richard Dedekind
increasingly focused their research on
internal problems, that is, pure
mathematics.[109][112] This led to split
mathematics into pure mathematics and
applied mathematics, the latter being often
considered as having a lower value among
mathematical purists. However, the lines
between the two are frequently blurred.[113]

The aftermath of World War II led to a

surge in the development of applied
mathematics in the US and
elsewhere.[114][115] Many of the theories
developed for applications were found
interesting from the point of view of pure
mathematics, and many results of pure
mathematics were shown to have
applications outside mathematics; in turn,
the study of these applications may give
new insights on the "pure theory".[116][117]

An example of the first case is the theory

of distributions, introduced by Laurent
Schwartz for validating computations
done in quantum mechanics, which
became immediately an important tool of
(pure) mathematical analysis.[118] An
example of the second case is the
decidability of the first-order theory of the
real numbers, a problem of pure
mathematics that was proved true by
Alfred Tarski, with an algorithm that is
impossible to implement because of a
computational complexity that is much too
high.[119] For getting an algorithm that can
be implemented and can solve systems of
polynomial equations and inequalities,
George Collins introduced the cylindrical
algebraic decomposition that became a
fundamental tool in real algebraic
geometry.[120]

In the present day, the distinction between

pure and applied mathematics is more a
question of personal research aim of
mathematicians than a division of
mathematics into broad areas.[121][122] The
Mathematics Subject Classification has a
section for "general applied mathematics"
but does not mention "pure
mathematics".[25] However, these terms
are still used in names of some university
departments, such as at the Faculty of
Mathematics at the University of
Cambridge.

Unreasonable effectiveness

The unreasonable effectiveness of

mathematics is a phenomenon that was
named and first made explicit by physicist
Eugene Wigner.[7] It is the fact that many
mathematical theories, even the "purest"
have applications outside their initial
object. These applications may be
completely outside their initial area of
mathematics, and may concern physical
phenomena that were completely
unknown when the mathematical theory
was introduced.[123] Examples of
unexpected applications of mathematical
theories can be found in many areas of
mathematics.

A notable example is the prime

factorization of natural numbers that was
discovered more than 2,000 years before
its common use for secure internet
communications through the RSA
cryptosystem.[124] A second historical
example is the theory of ellipses. They
were studied by the ancient Greek
mathematicians as conic sections (that is,
intersections of cones with planes). It is
almost 2,000 years later that Johannes
Kepler discovered that the trajectories of
the planets are ellipses.[125]

In the 19th century, the internal

development of geometry (pure
mathematics) lead to define and study
non-Euclidean geometries, spaces of
dimension higher than three and
manifolds. At this time, these concepts
seemed totally disconnected from the
physical reality, but at the beginning of the
20th century, Albert Einstein developed the
theory of relativity that uses fundamentally
these concepts. In particular, spacetime of
the special relativity is a non-Euclidean
space of dimension four, and spacetime of
the general relativity is a (curved) manifold
of dimension four.[126][127]

A striking aspect of the interaction

between mathematics and physics is
when mathematics drives research in
physics. This is illustrated by the
discoveries of the positron and the baryon
In both cases, the equations of the
theories had unexplained solutions, which
led to conjecture the existence of an
unknown particle, and to search these
particles. In both cases, these particles
were discovered a few years later by
specific experiments.[128][129][130]

Specific sciences

Physics

Diagram of a pendulum

Mathematics and physics have influenced

each other over their modern history.
Modern physics uses mathematics
abundantly,[131] and is also the motivation
of major mathematical developments.[132]
See above for examples of this strong
interaction.

Computing

The rise of technology in the 20th century

opened the way to a new science:
computing.[e] This field is closely related to
mathematics in several ways. Theoretical
computer science is essentially
mathematical in nature. Communication
technologies apply branches of
mathematics that may be very old (e.g.,
arithmetic), especially with respect to
transmission security, in cryptography and
coding theory. Discrete mathematics is
useful in many areas of computer science,
such as complexity theory, information
theory, graph theory, and so on.

In return, computing has also become

essential for obtaining new results. This is
a group of techniques known as
experimental mathematics, which is the
use of experimentation to discover
mathematical insights.[133] The most well-
known example is the four-color theorem,
which was proven in 1976 with the help of
a computer. This revolutionized traditional
mathematics, where the rule was that the
mathematician should verify each part of
the proof. In 1998, the Kepler conjecture
on sphere packing seemed to also be
partially proven by computer. An
international team had since worked on
writing a formal proof; it was finished (and
verified) in 2015.[134]

Once written formally, a proof can be

verified using a program called a proof
assistant.[135] These programs are useful
in situations where one is uncertain about
a proof's correctness.[135]
A major open problem in theoretical
computer science is P versus NP. It is one
of the seven Millennium Prize
Problems.[136]

Biology and chemistry

The skin of this giant pufferfish exhibits a Turing pattern, which can be modeled by reaction–diffusion systems.

Biology uses probability extensively - for

example, in ecology or neurobiology.[137]
Most of the discussion of probability in
biology, however, centers on the concept
of evolutionary fitness.[137]

Ecology heavily uses modeling to simulate

population dynamics,[137][138] study
ecosystems such as the predator-prey
model, measure pollution diffusion,[139] or
to assess climate change.[140] The
dynamics of a population can be modeled
by coupled differential equations, such as
the Lotka–Volterra equations.[141]
However, there is the problem of model
validation. This is particularly acute when
the results of modeling influence political
decisions; the existence of contradictory
models could allow nations to choose the
most favorable model.[142]

Genotype evolution can be modeled with

the Hardy-Weinberg principle.

Phylogeography uses probabilistic

models.

Medicine uses statistical hypothesis

testing, run on data from clinical trials, to
determine whether a new treatment works.

Since the start of the 20th century,

chemistry has used computing to model
molecules in three dimensions. It turns out
that the form of macromolecules in
biology is variable and determines the
action. Such modeling uses Euclidean
geometry; neighboring atoms form a
polyhedron whose distances and angles
are fixed by the laws of interaction.

Earth sciences

Structural geology and climatology use

probabilistic models to predict the risk of
natural catastrophes. Similarly,
meteorology, oceanography, and
planetology also use mathematics due to
their heavy use of models.
Social sciences

Areas of mathematics used in the social

sciences include probability/statistics and
differential equations (stochastic or
deterministic). These areas used in fields
such as sociology, psychology, economics,
finance, and linguistics.

Supply and demand curves, like this one, are a staple of mathematical economics.
The fundamental postulate of
mathematical economics is that of the
rational individual actor – Homo
economicus (lit. 'economic man').[143] In
this model, each individual aims solely to
accumulate as much profit as
possible,[143] and always makes optimal
choices using perfect information.[144]
This atomistic view of economics allows it
to relatively easily mathematize its
thinking, because individual calculations
are transposed into mathematical
calculations. Such mathematical modeling
allows one to probe economic
mechanisms which would be very difficult
to discover by a "literary" analysis. For
example, explanations of economic cycles
are not trivial. Without mathematical
modeling, it is hard to go beyond simple
statistical observations or unproven
speculation.

However, many people have rejected or

criticized the concept of Homo
economicus.[144] Economists note that real
people usually have limited information
and often make poor choices.[144] Also, as
shown in laboratory experiments, people
care about fairness and sometimes
altruism, not just personal gain.[144]
According to critics, mathematization is a
veneer that allows for the material's
scientific valorization.

At the start of the 20th century, there was

a movement to express historical
movements in formulas. In 1922, Nikolai
Kondratiev discerned the ~50-year-long
Kondratiev cycle, which explains phases of
economic growth or crisis.[145] Towards
the end of the 19th century, Nicolas-Remi
Brück and Charles Henri Lagrange had
extended their analysis into geopolitics.
They wanted to establish the historical
existence of vast movements that took
peoples to their apogee, then to their
decline.[146] More recently, Peter Turchin
has been working on developing
cliodynamics since the 1990s.[147] (In
particular, he discovered the Turchin cycle,
which predicts that violence spikes in a
short cycle of ~50-year intervals,
superimposed over a longer cycle of
~200–300 years.[148])

Even so, mathematization of the social

sciences is not without danger. In the
controversial book Fashionable Nonsense
(1997), Sokal and Bricmont denounced the
unfounded or abusive use of scientific
terminology, particularly from
mathematics or physics, in the social
sciences. The study of complex systems
(evolution of unemployment, business
capital, demographic evolution of a
population, etc.) uses elementary
mathematical knowledge. However, the
choice of counting criteria, particularly for
unemployment, or of models can be
subject to controversy.

Relationship with astrology

and esotericism
Mathematics has had a close relationship
with astrology for a long time. Biased by
astral themes, it had motivated the study
of astronomy. Renowned mathematicians
have also been considered to be renowned
astrologists; for example, Ptolemy, Arab
astronomers, Regiomantus, Cardano,
Kepler, or John Dee. In the Middle Ages,
astrology was considered a science that
included mathematics. In his
encyclopedia, Theodor Zwinger wrote that
astrology was a mathematical science
that studied the "active movement of
bodies as they act on other bodies". He
reserved to mathematics the need to
"calculate with probability the influences
[of stars]" to foresee their "conjunctions
and oppositions".[149] Contemporary
Eastern astrological theories pride
themselves on following scientific
methods. In particular, statistical astrology
uses statistical tests to provide evidence
of eventual correlations between the
positions of stars and the futures of
people. Despite this, as of 2009, studies by
Paul Choisnard and Michel Gauquelin,
conducted at the margins of scientific
research, have not found any admissible
evidence of a cause-and-effect
relationship.

Mathematics is also a component of

esotericism. Very frequently,
mathematicians themselves have been
tempted to find, in figures or numbers, a
hidden meaning that serves as the key to
discover the world. In the Pythagorean
school, each number had a symbolic
meaning and the initiates’ oath was recited
by a tetractys.[150] Similarly, Plato was not
content to enumerate the solids that bear
his name; he also attributed to each a
nature (water, air, fire, earth, universe).[151]
Arithmosophy, numerology, and gematria
tended, using calculations with numbers,
to find hidden meanings in texts or to
extract predictive powers from them. This
fascination for numbers and figures
continues to this day, as some attribute
hidden virtues to the pentagram or the
golden ratio.

As of the 21st century, these disciplines

are no longer considered sciences.[152]
Philosophy

Reality

The connection between mathematics and

material reality has led to philosophical
debates since at least the time of
Pythagoras. The ancient philosopher Plato
argued that abstractions that reflect
material reality have themselves a reality
that exists outside space and time. As a
result, the philosophical view that
mathematical objects somehow exist on
their own in abstraction is often referred to
as Platonism. Independently of their
possible philosophical opinions, modern
mathematicians may be generally
considered as Platonists, since they think
of and talk of their objects of study as real
objects.[153]

Armand Borel summarized this view of

mathematics reality as follows, and
provided quotations of G. H. Hardy,
Charles Hermite, Henri Poincaré and
Albert Einstein that support his views.[128]

Something becomes objective (as

opposed to "subjective") as soon
as we are convinced that it
exists in the minds of others in
the same form as it does in ours
 and that we can think about it
and discuss it together.[154]
Because the language of
mathematics is so precise, it is
ideally suited to defining
concepts for which such a
consensus exists. In my opinion,
that is sufficient to provide us
with a feeling of an objective
existence, of a reality of
mathematics ...

Nevertheless, Platonism and the

concurrent views on abstraction do not
explain the unreasonable effectiveness of
mathematics.[155]

Proposed definitions

There is no general consensus about a

definition of mathematics or its
epistemological status—that is, its place
among other human activities.[156][157] A
great many professional mathematicians
take no interest in a definition of
mathematics, or consider it
undefinable.[156] There is not even
consensus on whether mathematics is an
art or a science.[157] Some just say,
"mathematics is what mathematicians
do".[156] This makes sense, as there is a
strong consensus among them about
what is mathematics and what is not.
Most proposed definitions try to define
mathematics by its object of study.[158]

Aristotle defined mathematics as "the

science of quantity" and this definition
prevailed until the 18th century. However,
Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity
alone may not distinguish mathematics
from sciences like physics; in his view,
abstraction and studying quantity as a
property "separable in thought" from real
instances set mathematics apart.[159] In
the 19th century, when mathematicians
began to address topics—such as infinite
sets—which have no clear-cut relation to
physical reality, a variety of new definitions
were given.[160] With the large number of
new areas of mathematics that appeared
since the beginning of the 20th century
and continue to appear, defining
mathematics by this object of study
becomes an impossible task.

Another approach for defining

mathematics is to use its methods. So, an
area of study can be qualified as
mathematics as soon as one can prove
theorem—assertions whose validity relies
on a proof, that is, a purely-logical
deduction.[161] Others take the perspective
that mathematics is an investigation of
axiomatic set theory, as this study is now a
foundational discipline for much of
modern mathematics.[162]

Rigor

Mathematical reasoning requires rigor.

This means that the definitions must be
absolutely unambiguous and the proofs
must be reducible to a succession of
applications of inference rules,[f] without
any use of empirical evidence and
intuition.[g][163] Rigorous reasoning is not
specific to mathematics, but, in
mathematics, the standard of rigor is
much higher than elsewhere. Despite
mathematics' concision, rigorous proofs
can require hundreds of pages to express.
The emergence of computer-assisted
proofs has allowed proof lengths to further
expand,[h][164] such as the 255-page Feit–
Thompson theorem.[i] The result of this
trend is a philosophy of the quasi-
empiricist proof that can not be
considered infallible, but has a probability
attached to it.[10]

The concept of rigor in mathematics dates

back to ancient Greece, where their society
encouraged logical, deductive reasoning.
However, this rigorous approach would
tend to discourage exploration of new
approaches, such as irrational numbers
and concepts of infinity. The method of
demonstrating rigorous proof was
enhanced in the sixteenth century through
the use of symbolic notation. In the 18th
century, social transition led to
mathematicians earning their keep
through teaching, which led to more
careful thinking about the underlying
concepts of mathematics. This produced
more rigorous approaches, while
transitioning from geometric methods to
algebraic and then arithmetic proofs.[10]
At the end of the 19th century, it appeared
that the definitions of the basic concepts
of mathematics were not accurate enough
for avoiding paradoxes (non-Euclidean
geometries and Weierstrass function) and
contradictions (Russell's paradox). This
was solved by the inclusion of axioms with
the apodictic inference rules of
mathematical theories; the re-introduction
of axiomatic method pioneered by the
ancient Greeks.[10] It results that "rigor" is
no more a relevant concept in
mathematics, as a proof is either correct
or erroneous, and a "rigorous proof" is
simply a pleonasm. Where a special
concept of rigor comes into play is in the
socialized aspects of a proof, wherein it
may be demonstrably refuted by other
mathematicians. After a proof has been
accepted for many years or even decades,
it can then be considered as reliable.[165]

Nevertheless, the concept of "rigor" may

remain useful for teaching to beginners
what is a mathematical proof.[166]

Training and practice

Education

Mathematics has a remarkable ability to

cross cultural boundaries and time
periods. As a human activity, the practice
of mathematics has a social side, which
includes education, careers, recognition,
popularization, and so on. In education,
mathematics is a core part of the
curriculum and forms an important
element of the STEM academic
disciplines. Prominent careers for
professional mathematicians include math
teacher or professor, statistician, actuary,
financial analyst, economist, accountant,
commodity trader, or computer
consultant.[167]

Archaeological evidence shows that

instruction in mathematics occurred as
early as the second millennium BCE in
ancient Babylonia.[168] Comparable
evidence has been unearthed for scribal
mathematics training in the ancient Near
East and then for the Greco-Roman world
starting around 300 BCE.[169] The oldest
known mathematics textbook is the Rhind
papyrus, dated from circa 1650 BCE in
Eygpt.[170] Due to a scarcity of books,
mathematical teachings in ancient India
were communicated using memorized oral
tradition since the Vedic period (c. 1500 –
c. 500 BCE).[171] In Imperial China during
the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), a
mathematics curriculum was adopted for
the civil service exam to join the state
bureaucracy.[172]
Following the Dark Ages, mathematics
education in Europe was provided by
religious schools as part of the
Quadrivium. Formal instruction in
pedagogy began with Jesuit schools in the
16th and 17th century. Most mathematical
curriculum remained at a basic and
practical level until the nineteenth century,
when it began to flourish in France and
Germany. The oldest journal addressing
instruction in mathematics was
L'Enseignement Mathématique, which
began publication in 1899.[173] The
Western advancements in science and
technology led to the establishment of
centralized education systems in many
nation-states, with mathematics as a core
component—initially for its military
applications.[174] While the content of
courses varies, in the present day nearly all
countries teach mathematics to students
for significant amounts of time.[175]

During school, mathematical capabilities

and positive expectations have a strong
association with career interest in the
field. Extrinsic factors such as feedback
motivation by teachers, parents, and peer
groups can influence the level of interest in
mathematics.[176] Some students studying
math may develop an apprehension or fear
about their performance in the subject.
This is known as math anxiety or math
phobia, and is considered the most
prominent of the disorders impacting
academic performance. Math anxiety can
develop due to various factors such as
parental and teacher attitudes, social
stereotypes, and personal traits. Help to
counteract the anxiety can come from
changes in instructional approaches, by
interactions with parents and teachers,
and by tailored treatments for the
individual.[177]
Psychology (aesthetic, creativity and
intuition)

The validity of a mathematical theorem

relies only on the rigor of its proof, which
could theoretically be done automatically
by a computer program. This does not
mean that there is no place for creativity in
a mathematical work. On the contrary,
many important mathematical results
(theorems) are solutions of problems that
other mathematicians failed to solve, and
the invention of a way for solving them
may be a fundamental way of the solving
process.[178][179] An extreme example is
Apery's theorem: Roger Apery provided
only the ideas for a proof, and the formal
proof was given only several months later
by three other mathematicians.[180]

Creativity and rigor are not the only

psychological aspects of the activity of
mathematicians. Some mathematicians
can see their activity as a game, more
specifically as solving puzzles.[181] This
aspect of mathematical activity is
emphasized in recreational mathematics.

Mathematicians can find an aesthetic

value to mathematics. Like beauty, it is
hard to define, it is commonly related to
elegance, which involves qualities like
simplicity, symmetry, completeness, and
generality. G. H. Hardy in A
Mathematician's Apology expressed the
belief that the aesthetic considerations
are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the
study of pure mathematics. He also
identified other criteria such as
significance, unexpectedness, and
inevitability, which contribute to
mathematical aesthetic.[182] Paul Erdős
expressed this sentiment more ironically
by speaking of "The Book", a supposed
divine collection of the most beautiful
proofs. The 1998 book Proofs from THE
BOOK, inspired by Erdős, is a collection of
particularly succinct and revelatory
mathematical arguments. Some examples
of particularly elegant results included are
Euclid's proof that there are infinitely many
prime numbers and the fast Fourier
transform for harmonic analysis.[183]

Some feel that to consider mathematics a

science is to downplay its artistry and
history in the seven traditional liberal
arts.[184] One way this difference of
viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical
debate as to whether mathematical results
are created (as in art) or discovered (as in
science).[128] The popularity of recreational
mathematics is another sign of the
pleasure many find in solving
mathematical questions.

In the 20th century, the mathematician L.

E. J. Brouwer even initiated a philosophical
perspective known as intuitionism, which
primarily identifies mathematics with
certain creative processes in the mind.[59]
Intuitionism is in turn one flavor of a
stance known as constructivism, which
only considers a mathematical object valid
if it can be directly constructed, not merely
guaranteed by logic indirectly. This leads
committed constructivists to reject certain
results, particularly arguments like
existential proofs based on the law of
excluded middle.[185]

In the end, neither constructivism nor

intuitionism displaced classical
mathematics or achieved mainstream
acceptance. However, these programs
have motivated specific developments,
such as intuitionistic logic and other
foundational insights, which are
appreciated in their own right.[185]
Cultural impact

Artistic expression

Cover page of Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels by Jean-Philippe Rameau

Notes that sound well together to a

Western ear are sounds whose
fundamental frequencies of vibration are
in simple ratios. For example, an octave
doubles the frequency and a perfect fifth

multiplies it by .[186][187]

This link between frequencies and

harmony was discussed in Traité de
l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels
by Jean-Philippe Rameau,[188] a French
baroque composer and music
theoretician. It rests on the analysis of
harmonics (noted 2 to 15 in the following
figure) of a fundamental Do (noted 1); the
first harmonics and their octaves sound
well together.
Harmonics on a staff

The curve in red has a logarithmic shape,

which reflects the following two
phenomena:

The pitch of the sound, which in our

auditory system is proportional to the
logarithm of the sound's frequency.
The harmonic frequencies, which are
integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
Fractal with a scaling symmetry and a central symmetry

Humans, as well as some other animals,

find symmetric patterns to be more
beautiful.[189] Mathematically, the
symmetries of an object form a group
known as the symmetry group.[190]

For example, the group underlying mirror

symmetry is the cyclic group of two
elements, . A Rorschach test is a
figure invariant by this symmetry, as well
as a butterfly, and animal bodies more
generally (at least on the surface). Waves
on the sea surface possess translation
symmetry: moving one's viewpoint by the
distance between wave crests does not
change one's view of the sea. Furthermore,
fractals possess (usually approximate)
self-similarity.[191][192]

Popularization

Popular mathematics is the act of

presenting mathematics without technical
terms.[193] Presenting mathematics may
be hard since the general public suffers
from mathematical anxiety and
mathematical objects are highly
abstract.[194] However, popular
mathematics writing can overcome this by
using applications or cultural links.[195]
Despite this, mathematics is rarely the
topic of popularization in printed or
televised media.

Literature and film

There are many biographies about

mathematicians, but mathematics is a
poorly explored theme in literature and
film, though it is present.
Novels

Cover detail from Flatland

Books by Denis Guedj, such as:

The Parrot's Theorem[196]
Zéro, ou les cinq vies d'Aémer
Der Zahlenteufel. Ein Kopfkissenbuch für
alle, die Angst vor der Mathematik haben,
by Hans Magnus Enzensberger
The Oxford Murders, by Guillermo
Martinez
 Malheur aux gagnants, by Julien
Heylbroeck
Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture,
by Apóstolos Doxiádis
Flatland, by Edwin Abbott Abbott[196]
The Housekeeper and the Professor, by
Yōko Ogawa[197]
The Planiverse, by A. K. Dewdney
Le Grand Roman des maths, by Mickaël
Launay
Films

I.Q. (1994), by Fred Schepisi

Good Will Hunting (1997), by Gus Van
Sant[198][199]
Love, Math and Sex (1997), by Charlotte
Silvera
Pi (1998), by Darren Aronofsky[199]
A Beautiful Mind (2001), by Ron
Howard[198]
Proof (2005), by John Madden[199]
The Oxford Murders (2008), by Álex de la
Iglesia
21 (2008), by Robert Luketic
The Imitation Game (2014), by Morten
Tyldum
The Man Who Knew Infinity (2015), by
Matthew Brown
Plays

Proof (2000), by David Auburn

One zéro show : spectacle arithmétique
en 0 acte et 1 tableau… blanc ; (suivi de)
Du point… à la ligne : spectacle
géométrique en ligne… et en surface
(2001), by Denis Guedj
L'affaire 3.14, by Cédric Aubouy
Galois Poincaré, mythes et maths, by
Cédric Aubouy and David Latini
TV series

NUMB3RS, by Nicolas Falacci and Cheryl

Heuton[200]
 Eureka, by Andrew Cosby and Jaime
Paglia[200]
Stargate Universe, by Brad Wright and
Robert C. Cooper

Awards and prize problems

The front side of the Fields Medal with an illustration of the Greek polymath Archimedes

The most prestigious award in

mathematics is the Fields Medal,[201][202]
established in 1936 and awarded every
four years (except around World War II) to
up to four individuals.[203][204] It is
considered the mathematical equivalent of
the Nobel Prize.[204]

Other prestigious mathematics awards

include:[205]

The Abel Prize, instituted in 2002[206]

and first awarded in 2003[207]
The Chern Medal for lifetime
achievement, introduced in 2009[208] and
first awarded in 2010[209]
The AMS Leroy P. Steele Prize, awarded
since 1970[210]
 The Wolf Prize in Mathematics, also for
lifetime achievement,[211] instituted in
1978[212]

A famous list of 23 open problems, called

"Hilbert's problems", was compiled in 1900
by German mathematician David
Hilbert.[213] This list has achieved great
celebrity among mathematicians,[214] and,
as of 2022, at least thirteen of the
problems (depending how some are
interpreted) have been solved.[215]

A new list of seven important problems,

titled the "Millennium Prize Problems", was
published in 2000. Only one of them, the
Riemann hypothesis, duplicates one of
Hilbert's problems. A solution to any of
these problems carries a 1 million dollar
reward.[216] To date, only one of these
problems, the Poincaré conjecture, has
been solved.[217]

See also
Mathematics
portal

List of mathematical jargon

Lists of mathematicians
Lists of mathematics topics
Mathematical constant
Mathematical sciences
Mathematics and art
 Mathematics education
Outline of mathematics
Philosophy of mathematics
Relationship between mathematics and
physics
Science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics

Notes
a. Here, algebra is taken in its modern sense,
which is, roughly speaking, the art of
manipulating formulas.
b. This includes conic sections, which are
intersections of circular cylinders and
planes.
c. However, some advanced methods of
analysis are sometimes used; for example,
methods of complex analysis applied to
generating series.
d. Like other mathematical sciences such as
physics and computer science, statistics is
an autonomous discipline rather than a
branch of applied mathematics. Like
research physicists and computer
scientists, research statisticians are
mathematical scientists. Many statisticians
have a degree in mathematics, and some
statisticians are also mathematicians.
e. Ada Lovelace, in the 1840s, is known for
having written the first computer program
ever in collaboration with Charles Babbage
f. This does not mean to make explicit all
inference rules that are used. On the
contrary, this is generally impossible,
without computers and proof assistants.
Even with this modern technology, it may
take years of human work for writing down
a completely detailed proof.
g. This does not mean that empirical evidence
and intuition are not needed for choosing
the theorems to be proved and to prove
them.
h. For considering as reliable a large
computation occurring in a proof, one
generally requires two computations using
independent software
i. The book containing the complete proof
has more than 1,000 pages.
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12. Both meanings can be found in Plato, the
narrower in Republic. 510c (https://www.pe
rseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Re
p.+6.510c&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1
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Further reading

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School of Mathematics.
Benson, Donald C. (1999). The Moment of
Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies (https://archi
ve.org/details/momentofproofmat00bens/pa
ge/n5/mode/2up) . Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-513919-8.
Davis, Philip J.; Hersh, Reuben (1999). The
Mathematical Experience (Reprint ed.).
Boston; New York: Mariner Books. ISBN 978-
0-395-92968-1. Available online (https://archi
ve.org/details/mathematicalexpe0000davi/p
age/n5/mode/2up) (registration required).
Courant, Richard; Robbins, Herbert (1996).
What Is Mathematics?: An Elementary
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ve.org/details/whatismathematic0000cour/p
age/n5/mode/2up) (2nd ed.). New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
510519-3.
Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics: From the
Birth of Numbers (https://archive.org/details/
mathematicsfromb1997gull/page/n5/mode/
2up) . W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-
393-04002-9.
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2000).
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Kluwer
Academic Publishers. – A translated and
expanded version of a Soviet mathematics
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s://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Special:AllP
ages) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20110703012938/http://www.encyclopedi
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Hodgkin, Luke Howard (2005). A History of
Mathematics: From Mesopotamia to
Modernity. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-152383-0.
Jourdain, Philip E. B. (2003). "The Nature of
Mathematics". In James R. Newman (ed.).
The World of Mathematics. Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-43268-7.
Pappas, Theoni (1986). The Joy Of
Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/joyo
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