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THEORY OF
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
THEORY AND DESIGN

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What is pavement ? Types of Pavement

 A structure consisting of superimposed layers of

processed materials above the natural soil sub- PAVEMENT
grade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT

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Flexible pavement: Load transfer:

 Load is transferred to the lower layer by grain to

 Flexible pavements are those which on a whole have grain distribution as shown in the figure given below;
low or negligible flexural strength and rather flexible
in their structural action under load.

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TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE

Load Transfer (continue …) PAVEMENT :
 Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement
 The wheel load acting on the pavement will be
includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat, binder
distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases
course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course,
with the depth. Flexible pavement layers reflect the
compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-grade.
deformation of the lower layers on to the surface
layer

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TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT PAVEMENT (Continue ….)

 Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-  Surface course is the layer directly in contact with
proof the surface and to provide skid resistance. traffic loads and are constructed with dense graded
asphalt concrete.
 Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt
emulsion diluted with water. And It provides bonding  Binder course purpose is to distribute load to the
between two layers of binder course.
base course. Binder course requires lesser quality of
mix as compared to course above it.
 Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback
bitumen to an absorbent surface like granular bases
on which binder layer is placed and provides  Base course provides additional load distribution
bonding between two layers. and contributes to the sub-surface drainage

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TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT (Continue ….) FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT DESIGN

 Sub-base course the primary functions are to  1. Design Wheel Load

provide structural support, improve drainage, and  Max. Wheel load
reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in  Axle configuration
the pavement structure  Contact pressure
 ESWL.
 Sub-grade The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of  Repetition of loads
natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the  2. Climatic Factor
layers above  3. Pavement component material

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Design Wheel Load. Design Wheel Load (Continue)

 Axle configuration - the axle configuration is important to

 Max. Wheel load - It is used to determine the depth know the way in which the load is applied on the pavement
of the pavement required to ensure that the surface.
subgrade soil does not fail.

 Contact pressure - It determines the contact area and the

contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement
surface. For simplicity elliptical contact area is consider to
be circular.

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Example 1

Design Wheel Load (Continue) Find ESWL at depths of 5cm, 20cm and 40cm for a dual wheel
carrying 2044 kg each. The center to center tyre spacing is 20cm
and distance between the walls of the two tyres is 10cm.
 Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)

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Design Wheel Load (Continue) Climatic Factor

 Repetition of loads :  1. Temperature -

 Wide temperature variations may cause damaging
effects.
 Each load application causes some deformation and the
 Pavement becomes soft in hot weather and brittle in very
total deformation is the summation of all these.
cold weather.

 Although the pavement deformation due to single axle

load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of load  2. Variation in moisture condition –
repetition is significant.  It depends on type of the pavement, type of soil type,
ground water variation etc.
 Therefore, modern design is based on total number of  It can be controlled by providing suitable surface and sub-
standard axle load (usually 80 KN single axle) surface drainage.

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Characteristic of Pavement material

Characteristic of Pavement material (Continue ….)
 1. California bearing ratio- It determines the strength  The following material properties are consider for
of soil sub-grade, sub-base or base and it is used for both flexible and rigid pavements.
the design of pavement.  When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the
 2. Elastic modulus -It measures the materials elastic moduli and poisson ratio are specified.
resistance to being deformed elastically upon
application of the wheel load.  If the elastic modulus of a material varies with the time of
loading, then the resilient modulus is selected.
 3. Poisson Ratio – It is the ratio of lateral strain to the
axial strain caused by a load parallel axis along axial
strain.
 4. Resilient modulus- The elastic modulus based on
the recoverable strain under repeated loads is called
the resilient modulus MR =σd/σr .
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Design procedures for flexible pavements: Mechanistic-empirical design

 1. It can be used for both existing pavement

rehabilitation and new pavement construction
Design Procedures
 2. It can accommodate changing load types
 3. It uses material proportion that relates
Empirical Design Mechanistic- Mechanistic better with actual pavement performance
Empirical Design Design
 4. It provides more reliable performance
predictions
IRC:37-2012 is based on Mechanistic-Empirical
Design

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1. ALLIGATOR OR MAP CRACKING

Failures of flexible pavements:
(FATIGUE CRACKING)
 Different types of failure encountered in flexible
 Followings are the primary causes of
pavements are as follow. this type of failure.
 1. Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)
 2. Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)  Relative movement of pavement
 3. Shear failure cracking layer material
 4. Longitudinal cracking
 5. Frost heaving  Repeated application of heavy
 6. Lack of binding to the lower course wheel loads
 7. Reflection cracking
 8. Formation of waves and corrugation  Swelling or shrinkage of subgrade
 9. Bleeding or other layers due to moisture
 10.Pumping variation

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2. CONSOLIDATION OF PAVEMENT
LAYERS (RUTTING) 3. SHEAR FAILURE CRACKING:
 Formation of ruts falls in this
type of failure.  Shear failure causes
 A rut is a depression or upheaval of pavement
groove worn into a road by
the travel of wheels. material by forming a
 This type of failure is caused fracture or cracking.
due to following reasons.
 Followings are the primary
 •Repeated application of
load along the same
causes of shear failure
wheel path resulting cracking.
longitudinal ruts.  •Excessive wheel loading
 •Wearing of the surface  •Low shearing resistance of
course along the wheel pavement mixture
path resulting shallow
ruts.
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4. LONGITUDINAL CRACKING: 5. FROST HEAVING:

 This types of cracks extents to the
full thickness of pavement.  Frost heaving causes
upheaval of localized
 The following are the primary portion of a pavement.
causes of longitudinal cracking. The extent of frost
 Differential volume changes in heaving depends upon
subgrade soil
the ground water table
 Settlement of fill materials
and climatic condition.
 Sliding of side slopes

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6. LACK OF BINDING WITH LOWER LAYER

(POTHOLES & SLIPPAGE) 7. REFLECTION CRACKING:
 When there is lack of
binding between surface  This type of failure
course and underlying occurs, when
layer, some portion of bituminous surface
surface course looses up course is laid over the
materials creating patches existing cement
and potholes. concrete pavement
 Slippage cracking is one with some cracks. This
form of this type of failure. crack is reflected in
 Lack of prime coat or tack the same pattern on
coat in between two layers bituminous surface.
is the primary reason
behind this type of failure.
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8. FORMATION OF WAVES &

CORRUGATION : 9. BLEEDING:

 Excess bituminous
 Transverse binder occurring on the
undulations appear pavement surface
at regular intervals causes bleeding.
due to the unstable Bleeding causes a shiny,
surface course glass-like, reflective
caused by stop-and- surface that may be
go traffic. tacky to the touch.
Usually found in the
wheel paths.

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10. PUMPING: FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

 Seeping or ejection  The design of flexible pavement as per IRC is

of water and fines based on two major failure that are, fatigue
from beneath the cracking and rutting failure.
pavement through
cracks is called
pumping

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IRC METHOD OF DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENTS (IRC: 37-2012) Continue ….
 1. IRC:37-1970  3. IRC:37-2001
 based on California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of subgrade  based on Mechanistic-Empirical method
 Traffic in terms of commercial vehicles (more than 3  Pavements were required to be designed for traffic as
tonnes laden weight) high as 150 msa.
 2. IRC:37-1984  The limiting rutting is recommended as 20 mm in 20 per
 based on California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of subgrade cent of the length for design traffic
 Design traffic was considered in terms of cumulative  4. IRC:37-2012
number of equivalent standard axle load of 80 kN in  based on Mechanistic-Empirical method
millions of standard axles (msa)  The limiting rutting is recommended as 20 mm in 20 per
 Design charts were provided for traffic up to 30 msa using cent of the length for design traffic up to 30 msa and 10
an empirical approach. per cent of the length for the design traffic beyond
 .
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Guidelines for Design by IRC: 37: 2012 Traffic growth rate (r):
 Design Traffic:  Estimated by Analyzing:
 The recommended method considers design traffic  The past trends of traffic growth,
in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles
(80 kN) to be carried by the pavement during the
 Change in demand of Traffic by factors like specific
design life.
development, Land use changes etc.
 Only the number of commercial vehicles having
gross vehicle weight of 30 kN or more and their axle-
loading is considered for the purpose of design of  If the data for the annual growth rate of commercial
pavement. vehicles is not available or if it is less than 5 per
cent, a growth rate of 5 per cent should be used
 Assessment of the present day average traffic
(IRC:SP:84-2009).
should be based on seven-day-24-hour count made
in accordance with IRC: 9-1972 "Traffic Census on
37Non-Urban Roads".
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Design life (n) Vehicle damage factor (VDF)

 It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles
per commercial vehicle.
 The design life is defined in terms of the cumulative  The Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) is a multiplier to
number of standard axles in msa that can be carried convert the number of commercial vehicles of
before a major strengthening, rehabilitation or different axle loads and axle configuration into the
capacity augmentation of the pavement is number of repetitions of standard axle load of
necessary. magnitude 80 kN.

 Depending upon road type, Design traffic is ranges
from 10 to 15 years.

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EALF and ESAL EALF and ESAL

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Continue …. Example on VDF:

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Numerical

Let number of load repetition

Numerical
expected by 80 KN standard axle is
1000, 160 KN is 100 and 40 KN is
10000. Find the equivalent axle load. Let the number of load repetition expected by 120
kN axle is 1000, 160 kN is 100, and 40 kN is 10,000.
Answer: 3225 KN Find the equivalent standard axle load if the
equivalence criteria is rutting. Assume 80 kN as
standard axle load and the

Solution:
Answer: 8905 KN

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Numerical

Answer: 6031 KN

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Sample Size for Axle Load Survey: Lane distribution factor

 Distribution of commercial traffic in each direction
and in each lane is required for determining the total
equivalent standard axle load applications to be
considered in the design.

 In the absence of adequate and conclusive data, the

following distribution may be assumed until more
reliable data on placement of commercial vehicles
on the carriageway lanes are available:

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From IRC 37-2012

Lane distribution calculation:

 1) Single-lane roads:

 2) Two-lane single carriageway roads:

 3) Four-lane single carriageway roads:

 4) Dual carriageway roads:

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Computation of Design traffic: Sub-grade

 The design traffic in terms of the cumulative number  Requirements of CBR: Sub grade is made up of in-
of standard axles to be carried during the design life situ material, select soil or stabilized soil.
of the road should be computed using the following  Compacted to a minimum of 97% of laboratory dry
equation: density achieved with heavy compaction.
 Minimum CBR of 8% for traffic > 450 CVPD
 CBR can also be determined from Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer (60º cone) by ..
 Log10 CBR = 2.465-1.12log10 N
 Where, N = mm/blow

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Sub-grade (Continue…) Effective CBR

 Where different types of soils are used in sub grade  Where there is significant difference between the
minimum 6 to 8 average value for each type is required. CBRs of the select sub grade and embankment
 90th percentile for high volume and 80th percentile for soils, the design should be based on effective CBR.
other category of road is adopted as design CBR .
The effective CBR of the subgrade can be
 Maximum permissible variation
determined from Fig.

 Where variation is more average CBR should be average

of 6 samples and not three.

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Lab procedure for CBR calculation: Continue ….

 The test must always be performed on remoulded  If data is available for moisture variation in the
samples of soils in the laboratory. existing in-service pavements of a region in different
seasons, molding moisture content for the CBR test
 The pavement thickness should be based on 4-day can be based on field data.
soaked CBR value of the soil, remoulded at
placement density and moisture content ascertained
from the compaction curve.  Wherever possible the test specimens should be
 In areas with rainfall less than 1000 mm, four day prepared by static compaction. Alternatively dynamic
soaking is too severe a condition for well protected compaction may also be used.
sub-grade with thick bituminous layer and the
strength of the sub-grade soil may be
underestimated.
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Resilient Modulus: Continue ….

 Resilient modulus is the measure of its elastic  The CBR of the sub-grade should be determined as
behavior determined from recoverable deformation per IS: 2720 (Part 16) (36) at the most critical
in the laboratory tests. moisture conditions likely to occur at site.
 The modulus is an important parameter for design
and the performance of a pavement.
 The relation between resilient modulus and the
effective CBR is given as:

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Principle of pavement design: Check for Fatigue:

 Pavement Model:  Micro cracks at the bottom of bituminous layer are
developed with every load repetition
 Modeled as linear elastic
multilayer structure.  These cracks goes on expending till they propagate
 Stress Analysis is based on to the surface due to the large load repetition
IITPave software  In these guidelines, cracking in 20 per cent area has
 Critical parameters for
analysis are been considered for traffic up to 30 msa and 10 per
 1. Tensile strain at the bottom cent for traffic beyond that.
of bituminous layer
 2. Vertical sub-grade strain at
the top of sub-grade.
 Failure of pavement is
considered due to cracking
and rutting

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Check for Fatigue (Continue….) Check for Fatigue (Continue….)

 Two fatigue equations developed based on  To consider the effect of volume of the bitumen and air
voids equation (b) is modified as follows
performance data collected during various study are  Nf =0.5161 * C * 10-04 x [1/ εt]3.89 * [1/MR]0.854………(c)
 Nf= 2.21 * 10-04x [1/εt]3.89* [1/MR]0.854 (80 %
reliability)…(a)
 Nf= 0.711 * 10-04x [1/εt]3.89* [1/MR]0.854 (90 %
reliability)...(b)  Va= per cent volume of air void and Vb= per cent volume
 Where, of bitumen in a given volume of bituminous mix.
 Nf= fatigue life in number of standard axles,  Nf= fatigue life, єt= maximum tensile strain at the bottom
of DBM.
 εt= Maximum Tensile strain at the bottom of the  MR= Resilient modulus of bituminous mix.
bituminous layer, and  For traffic < 30 msa consider equation (a); For traffic >
 MR= resilient modulus of the bituminous layer. 30msa equation (c) is recommened.
 Equation for 90% reliability implies that only 10% of
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Check for Rutting: Rutting (Continue …)

 Rutting is the permanent deformation in pavement  Based on various studies the two equation develops
usually occurring longitudinally along the wheel path. are;
 Causes –
 1. Deformation in sub grade /non-bituminous layer  N = 4.1656 x 10-08[1/εv]4.5337 (80 per cent reliability)
 2. Secondary compaction and shear deformation of
bituminous layer
 N = 1.41x 10-8x [1/εv]4.5337 (90 per cent reliability)
 Limiting value
 20 mm in 20% length for upto 30 msa
 20 mm in 10% length for > 30 msa  Where,
 Rutting affects the serviceability of pavement.  N = Number of cumulative standard axles, and
 εv= Vertical strain in the sub-grade

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Pavement composition as per IRC: SUB-BASE LAYER

 A flexible pavement covered in these guidelines  UNBOUND SUB-BASE LAYER
consists of different layers as shown in figure;  Sub-base materials may consist of natural sand,
moorum, gravel, laterite, kankar, brick metal,
crushed stone, crushed slag
 Sub-base materials passing 425 micron sieve when
tested in accordance with IS:2720 (Part 5) should
have liquid limit and plasticity index of not more than
25 and 6 respectively.

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SUB-BASE LAYER(Unbound SB Continue…) SUB-BASE LAYER

 When coarse graded sub-base is used as a drainage  Bound Sub base
layer, Los Angeles abrasion < 40  Material for bound sub-base may consist of soil,
 Required permeability; fines passing 0.075 mm aggregate or soil aggregate mixture modified with
should be less than 2 per cent. chemical stabilizers such as cement, lime-flyash.
 Sub-base is constructed in two layers, the lower  The drainage layer of the sub-base may consist of
layer forms the separation/filter layer to prevent coarse graded aggregates bound with about 2 per
intrusion of subgrade soil into the pavement and the cent cement while retaining the permeability.
upper GSB forms the drainage layer to drain away  Drainage and separation layers are essential when
any water water is likely to enter into pavements from the
 Resilient modulus (MR) for granular sub-base shoulder, median or through the cracks in surface
 MRgsb = 0.2 h0.45 * MR subgrade layer.
 Where, h = thickness of sub-base layer in mm
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SUB-BASE LAYER(Unbound SB Continue…) BASE LAYER

 UNBOUND BASE LAYER
 Base layer may consist of wet mix macadam, water
 Strength Parameter: bound macadam, crusher run macadam, reclaimed
 Elastic Modulus E of bound sub-bases is concrete etc.
 Ecgsb = 1000 * UCS  Resilient modulus of the granular base is given as..
 Where UCS = 28 day strength of the  MR granular = 0.2 * h0.45 MR subgrade
cementitious granular material  Where h = thickness of granular sub-base and base,
mm
 Poisson's ratio of granular bases and sub-bases
is recommended as 0.35.

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BASE LAYER(Continue..) Criteria for selecting Bitumen grade.

 CEMENTITIOUS BASES :  The recommended resilient modulus values of the
 Cemented base layers may consist of aggregates or bituminous materials with different binders are:
soils or both stabilized with chemical stabilizers, to
give a minimum strength of 4.5 to 7 MPa in 7/28
days.
 Default values of modulus of rupture are
recommended for cementitious bases (MEPDG).
 Cementitious stabilized aggregates - 1.40 MPa
 Lime—flyash-soil - 1.05 MPa
 Soil cement - 0.70 MPa
 Poisson's ration of the cemented layers may be
taken as 0.25.
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Continue ….. Drainage Layer

 The Poisson’s ratio of bituminous layer depends upon the
pavement temperature and a value of 0.35 is  Improvement of drainage can significantly reduce the
recommended for temperature up to 35°C and value of magnitude of seasonal heave. The desirable
0.50 for higher temperatures. requirements are:
 Higher viscosity of bituminous binders, which can be  (a). Provision must be made for the lateral drainage of the
achieved either by using higher viscosity grade bitumen pavement structural section. The granular sub-base/base
or modified bitumen will improve both fatigue and rutting should accordingly be extended across the shoulders
behavior of mixes as compared to mixes with normal
bitumen.  (b). No standing water should be allowed on either side of
the road embankment.
 Fatigue equation at any pavement temperature from
20°C to 40°C can be evaluated by substituting the  (c). A minimum height of1 m between the subgrade level
appropriate value of the resilient modulus of the and the highest water level
bituminous mix, air void and volume of bitumen.
Catalogue of designs has been worked out for a
temperature of 35°C.
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Drainage Layer(Continue…) Drainage Layer(Continue…)

 Some typical drainage system is illustrated in  Fig. 2 Pavement with Filter and Drainage Layers
following Figs….
 Fig.1 Pavement along a Slope

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Drainage Layer(Continue…)
 Criteria to be satisfied:
 The filter/separation layer should satisfy the following
criteria: DESIGN OF
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT :
 To prevent entry of soil particles into the drainage layer:

 D85 means the size of sieve that allows 85 per cent by

weight of the material to pass through it.
https://pavementinteractive.org/
 Similar is the meaning of D50 and D15.

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Design procedures
What is design ?
For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with
determining appropriate layer thickness and composition. The main design
factors are stresses due to traffic load and temperature variations. Two
methods of flexible pavement structural design are common today:
Empirical design and mechanistic empirical design.

 Design of pavement includes deciding

the number of layers, its composition and
thickness for selected material, to
support traffic load safely without failure.

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Design procedures
Various cases in design.
For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with
determining appropriate layer thickness and composition. The main design
factors are stresses due to traffic load and temperature variations. Two
methods of flexible pavement structural design are common today:
 The flexible pavement with different combinations of
Empirical design and mechanistic empirical design. traffic loads and material properties.

 1) Granular base and Granular sub-base.

 2) Cementitious base and sub-base with agg.
Interlayer.
 3) Cementitious base and sub-base with SAMI.
 4) RAP agg. Over cemented sub-base
 5) Cemented base and Granular sub-base

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Problem statement. Data collection

 Design the pavement for construction of a  Material properties :

new flexible pavement with the following data:
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 Four lanes divided National Highway.  Resilient Modulus (MR)
 Modulus of Elasticity (E)
 Design life is 15 years.  Poisson’s ratio (µ)

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Material properties Solution :

 Arrange in ascending order : 2.8, 2.9, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0,
4.2, 4.3, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7.
 CBR : The CBR values are calculated after  Calculate the percentage greater than equal of the
every kilometre on selected stretch of 10 km value as follows:
having the same type of soil. Suppose the  For CBR of 3.8, percentage of values greater than
values obtained are: 3.8, 2.8, 4.5, 3.9, 4.2, 2.9, equal to 3.8 = (8/10) x100 = 80%
4.7, 4.3, 4.0 and 4.6%. Based on the
 Similarly for 2.8 % is 100%, 4.5% CBR is 30% and
collected data the design CBR (90th percentile
so on.
CBR) is calculated as below:
 Now a plot is made between Percentages of values
greater than equal to the CBR values versus the
CBR as follows.

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Continue … Effective CBR:

RESULT : The 90th Percentile CBR value is 2.90%  (Figure 5.1, Page 11, IRC: 37: 2012)

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Poisson’s ratio Elastic modulus

 Poisson’s ratio µ is define as the ratio of lateral strain
(ɛl) to the axial strain (ɛa), caused by load parallel to  Elastic moduli of various pavement materials
the axis along which ɛa is measured. are obtained either through tests or through
 It is found that for most of the pavement structures, the recommendations available in the
the influence of µ value is normally small. guidelines.
 For most of cement treated materials (soil cement,
cement treated base, lean concrete and PCC), the  Repeated flexure or indirect tensile tests are
value of µ normally lies between 0.10 and 0.25. carried out to determine the dynamic modulus
 Unbound granular material lie between 0.2 and 0.5 Ed of bituminous mixes.
and those for bituminous mixes range from 0.35 to
0.50

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Resilient modulus Calculation of MR for Sub-grade.

 Resilient modulus is the measure of its elastic

 The resilient modulus is calculated as follow;
behaviour determined from recoverable deformation
in the laboratory tests.
 MR (Mpa) = 10 x CBR …………. For CBR 5
 The behaviour of the subgrade is essentially elastic
under the transient traffic loading with negligible = 17.6 x CBR0.64 ………For CBR > 5
permanent deformation in a single pass.
 (From equation 5.2, Page no. 12, IRC: 37: 2012)
 This can be determined in the laboratory by
conducting tests.

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Calculation of MR for Granular base and Traffic count

sub-base.  Assessment of average daily traffic should be normally
based on 7 day-24hr count made in accordance with
 The resilient modulus is calculated as follow; IRC: 9 “Traffic census on non-urban roads”.
 Classify traffic into different categories such as two
wheelers, three wheelers, passenger cars, trucks etc.
 MRgsb = 0.20 x h0.45 x MR subgrade  But only commercial vehicle with laden weight > 3 tonne
is taken into consideration of design.
 h = Thickness of sub-base layer in mm, …… sub-  Commercial vehicles are further categorised as single
base, axle single wheel, single axel dual wheel, Tandem axle
dual wheel and Tridem axle dual wheel.
 = Cumulative thickness of Base layer and Sub-
 Where no traffic count data is available, data from roads
base layer in mm ... for base of similar classification and importance may be used to
predict the design traffic

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Calculation of Design factor Design Traffic:

 1) Design Traffic,
 2) Axle load survey,  Initial traffic after construction in terms of number of
Commercial Vehicles per day (CVPD).
 3) Vehicle Damage Factor
 Traffic growth rate during the design life in
 4) Lane Distribution Factor
percentage.
 Design life in number of years.
 Spectrum of axle loads.
 Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF).
 Distribution of commercial traffic over the
carriageway.

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Calculation of Design traffic: Axle load survey :

 For our case the number of heavy commercial vehicle
per day is taken as 7 day average for 24 hour count  Required for VDF calculation and Fatigue damage
comes to be 2792 vehicle per day as per the last count.
analysis of cementitious base.

 The axle load spectrum is formulated by considering

 i. e. P = 2792 cvpd, r = 7 %, and x = 10 years 10 kN, 20 kN and 30 kN intervals for single, tandem
and tridem axle respectively.
 A = 2792 (1+0.07)10 = 5000 cvpd.
 RESULT: As per study the percentage of Single,
 RESULT: Traffic in the year of completion of construction Tandom and Tridom axle are 45%, 45% and 10%
is 5000 cvpd in both the directions. respectively

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Axle load spectrum Vehicle damage factor

Single Axle Load Tandem Axle Load Tridem Axle Load
 The formula to calculate VDF is given as follows:
Axle load Class Percentage of Axle load Class Percentage of Axle load Class Percentage of
(KN) Axles (KN) Axles (KN) Axles

185-195 0.64 390-410 1.85 585-615 1.40

175-185 0.80 370-390 2.03 555-585 1.60
165-175 0.80 350-370 2.03 525-555 1.60
155-165 2.58 330-350 2.08 495-525 1.80  W1, W2, ….. are the mean values of the various axle load
145-155 2.58 310-330 2.08 465-495 1.80 groups.
135-145 5.80 290-310 4.17 435-465 4.40
 V1, V2, …. are the respective traffic volumes.
125-135 5.80 270-290 4.17 405-435 4.40
115-125 11.82 250-270 12.67 375-405 13.10
 Ws is the standard axle load.
105-115 11.82 230-250 12.67 345-375 13.10  Standard axle load for Single axle, Tandem axle and
95-105 12.90 210-230 10.45 315-345 10.90 Tridem axle is 80 KN, 148 KN and 224 KN as per
85-95 12.16 190-210 10.45 285-315 10.40
IRC: 37:2012 (Page 7)
< 85 32.30 170-190 7.05 255-285 7.15
<170 28.28 <255 28.33  RESULT: The VDF for Single axle load, Tandem axle
Total 100 100 100 load and Tridem axle load is 4.11, 8.37 and 7.51.
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Vehicle Damage factor (Continue.) Lane distribution factor.

 Were sufficient information on axle loads are not  Distribution of commercial traffic in each direction
available or the small size of project does not and in each lane is required for determining the total
warrant an axle load survey the default values of equivalent standard axle load applications to be
VDF may be adopted as given in the table given considered in the design.
below.  Single lane road : Total vehicle in both direction.
 Two lane single carriage way : 50% of total vehicle in
both direction.
 Four lane single carriage way : 40% of total vehicle
in both direction.
 Dual carriage way: Two lane 75%, Three lane 60%,
Four lane 45% of number of CV in each direction.

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Lane distribution factor (Continue….) Million standard axle

 The design traffic is calculated in terms of cumulative
number of standard axle of 80 kN carried during the
design life of the road.

 RESULT: In the present design problem we are

given to design a four lane divided highway,
therefore the Lane distribution factor is 75 percent of
 r = 7.5 %,
number of commercial vehicle in each direction.
 n = 20 yr. ( Expressway and Urban roads), 15 yr (NH
and SH), In this problem we have to design National
highway take n as 15 years,
 A is 5000cvpd in both direction and 2500 in one
direction
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Calculation of Million std. axle. Calculation of Million std. axle. (Continue…)

 Single axle load (N1): 45 percent vehicles are of single
axle.
A : 0.45 x 2500 = 1125, F : 4.11  Total msa (N1+N2+N3)
N1 = 33.06 x 106 = 33.06 msa
 = 33.06 + 67.33 + 13.42
= 113.81 ̴ 150 msa (Aprox.)
 Tandem axle load (N2): 45 percent vehicles are of
tandem axle.
A : 0.45 x 2500 = 1125, F : 8. 37  RESULT: The cumulative million standard axles to
N2 = 67.33 x 106 = 67.33 msa
be consider for design is 150 msa.

 Tridem axle load (N3): 10 percent vehicles are of tridem

axle. 97A : 0.10 x 2500 = 250, F : 7.51

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Determination pavement thickness Determination of thickness for Case 1

 Case 1 : Bituminous pavement with untreated  The thickness of various layers is determined with
granular layer the help pavement design catalogue given in IRC:
37: 2012 from page 26 to 28, for various values of
effective CBR.

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Case 2 : Bituminous pavement with

Determination of thickness for Case 1 cemented base and cemented sub-base
(Continue ….) with aggregate inter layer of 100mm

 RESULT:
 For design traffic of 150msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of subbase (GSB) is 230 mm,
 Thickness of base (G. Base) is 250 mm,
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 140
mm,
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm

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Continue …. Determination of thickness for case 2.

 RESULT:
 For design traffic of 150msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase)
is 250 mm,
 Thickness of Cementitious base (CT Base) is
120 mm, Aggregate interlayer is 100mm
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50
mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm are
 Obtained by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5%
and 10%.
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Calculation of Resilient Modulus (MR) for Case 3 : Bituminous pavement with

case 2 cemented base and cemented sub-base with
 MR subgrade = 17.6 x CBR0.64 = 17.6 x 70.64 = 61.15 SAMI layer over cemented base.
Mpa.
 MR Bituminous layer = 3000 Mpa (From table 7.1
Resilienent Modulus of Bituminous Mixes, page 23,
IRC: 37: 2012)
 Pavement composition for 90 per cent Reliability is
BC + DBM = 100 mm,
 Aggregate interlayer = 100 mm (MR = 450 MPa),
 Cemented base = 120 mm (E = 5000 MPa),
 Cemented subbase = 250 mm (E = 600 Mpa)

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Continue …. Determination of thickness for Case 3

RESULT:
 Design traffic of 150 msa and CBR of 7%
 thickness of Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase) is
250 mm,
 Thickness of Cementitious base (CT Base) is 165
mm,
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50
mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm
PAGE 33 AND 34 OF IRC: 37: 2012
are
 obtained by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5%
and 10%.
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Case 4 Bituminous pavement with base of

fresh aggregate or RAP treated with foamed Continue …
bitumen/ Bitumen emulsion and cemented
sub-base

PAGE 36 AND 37 OF IRC: 37: 2012

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Case 5 : Bituminous pavement with

Determination of thickness for case 4 cemented base and granular sub-base with
 RESULT: 100mm WMM layer over cemented base:
 Design traffic of 150 msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase) is
250 mm,
 Thickness of Treater reclaimed aspalt pavement (Treated
RAP) is 180 mm,
 Thickness of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50 mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm are
 Obtained by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5% and
10%.
 Instead of RAP base of fresh aggregates treated with
bitumen emulsion/ foamed bitumen can be used to obtain
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Continue … Determination of thickness for case 5

 RESULT:
 Design traffic of 150 msa and CBR of 7%
 Thickness of Granulated Subbase (GSB) is 250 mm
 Cementitious sub-base (CT Subbase) is 195 mm,
 Thickness of aggregate layer is 100 mm, Thickness
of Dense Bitumen macadam (DBM) is 50 mm
 Thickness of Bituminous concrete (BC) is 50 mm
 Obtain by interpolating the thickness of CBR 5% and
10%.
 The upper 100 mm of granular sub-base should be
open graded so that its permeability is about 300
mm/day or higher for quick removal of water entering
from surface.
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Calculation of Resilient Modulus (MR) and

Modulus of Elasticity (E): Design check
 For traffic of 150 msa, Subgrade CBR 7%,  To check the suitability of pavement design
discussed above we carry out checks, which ensure
 MR subgrade = 17.6 x CBR0.64 = 17.6 x 70.64 = 61.15
safety against the failure of designed pavement.
Mpa.
 The flexible pavement is checked for two types of
 MR Bituminous layer = 3000 Mpa (From table 7.1
failures i.e. Rutting in pavement and Fatigue in
Resilienent Modulus of Bituminous Mixes, page 23,
bottom layer of bituminous surfacing.
IRC: 37: 2012)
 The following condition should be satisfied for the
 MR Aggregate = 450 Mpa and
design to be satisfactory
 E of cemented base is 5000 MPa,
 Design strain < Allowable strain
 E Granular subbase = MR subgrade x 0.20 x h0.45  Allowable strain = Obtained by fatigue model and
 Where, h = Thickness of GSB = 250 mm rutting model
 = 61.15 x 0.20 x 2500.45 = 146.72 Mpa.  Design strain = IITpave software
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Design of Drainage layer Continue ...

 Design a granular drainage layer for a four lane  Depth of drainage layer = 450 mm (WMM 250mm
heavy duty divided highway for an annual and Sub-base 200mm) By design.
precipitation of 1200 mm. Longitudinal slope = 3 per  Width of drainage layer : Calculate
cent, Camber = 2.5 percent.  AB = 8.5+1+2x0.45 = 10.4 m (1m unpave shoulder)
 Crack Infiltration Method  AC = 10.4 x(3/2) = 12.48 m.
 AD = 16.24 m
 (hypotenious of AB and AC)
 Elevation drop :
 Along AC: 12.48x3% = 0.374m
 Along CD: 10.40x2.5% = 0.26m
 Total drop = 0.634

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Continue …. Continue.
 Hydraulic gradient = [Elevation drop/ length  Amount of water infiltrated (Q);
 AD] = [0.634/16.24] =0.039  Q = 0.083 x 1 x 16.24 = 1.35 Cub.meter/ day.
 Compare with
 Infiltration rate calculation:  Q = KIA
 qi = Ic [Nc/W p + W c / (W p.Cs)]  A = Area of cress section = 1 x 0.1 = 0.1 sq.m
 Ic = 0.223 cub. m/day/meter  K = Coeff of permeability (Unknown)
 I = Hydraulic gradient (0.039)
 Nc = 3
 1.35 = K x 0.039 x 0.1
 Wp = 10.4 m
 K = 346.62 m/day
 Wc = Wp,
 This value of K is useful for deciding gradation.
 Cs = 12 m
 q = 0.083 Cub.meter/day/meter
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(Decide grade by using table) Recommendation

% Passing
Sieve
 Specifications should be modified according to local
Opening,
Mm
Grading 1 Grading 2 Grading 3 Grading 4 Grading 5 Grading 6
condition. In wet climate wearing course should be
20 100 100 100 100 100 100 impermeable.
12.5 85 84 83 81.5 79.5 75
9.5 77.5 76 74 72.5 69.5 63  long duration and low intensity rainfall causes more
4.76
2.36
58.3
42.5
56
39
52.5
34
49
29.5
43.5
22
32
5.8
damage as compare with rainfall of small duration
2.00 39 35 30 25 17 0 and more density.
0.84 26.5 22 15.5 9.8 0 0
0.42 18.2 13.3 6.3 0 0 0  If DBM and SDBC/BC are designed properly (4% air
0.25 13.0 7.5 0 0 0 0
0.10 6 0 0 0 0 0 voids and protected shoulder) impermeably can be
0.075 0 0 0 0 0 0
ensure.
Coeff. Of
permeability 3 35 100 350 850 950  Adequate provision for sub-surface drainage prevent
m/day
pavement damage.
Provide Grading 4 for K 346.62 m/day = 350m/day
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Recommendations. Conclusion
 Thickness charts with BC/ SDBC are valid for all  Time to time revisions of code provision are needed
rainfall area. keeping in view changes in traffic pattern and
 For pavement carrying heavy traffic wearing course development of new technologies. Further with the
laid over WBM shows better performance. gain of experience in the design as well as
 For low traffic (upto 5 msa) bitumen surfacing with construction procedure of flexible pavement have
two coats is found to be suitable. demanded certain changes.
 Hence by considering the above factors IRC: 37:
2012 includes some conceptual changes in the
design of flexible pavement such as inclusion of
Resilience moduli and consideration of strain in
design.

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Conclusion . • Problem 1: Design the pavement for construction of a new two lane carriageway for

 This code also encourages the use IIT pave software design life 15 years using IRC method. The initial traffic in the year of completion in
which is newly recommended.
each direction is 300 CVPD and growth rate is 5%. Vehicle damage factor based on
 Since the use of semi-mechanistic approach, the
design is not only based on the experience but it axle load survey = 2.5 std axle per commercial vehicle. Design CBR of subgrade

also gives parameters (strain parameter) to check soil=4%.

the obtained design. Answer: 4.4 msa

 Solution to the above pavement design problem

shows that the thickness design varies with the
variation in various factors.

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Problem 2: Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with References
the following data:
• Two lane carriage way
• Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 400 CVPD  [1] IRC: 37: 2012, “Guidelines for Design of Flexible
(sum of both directions)
pavement”, second revision.
• Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
• Design life = 15 years  [2] IRC: 37: 2001, “Tentative guidelines for Design of
• Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle Flexible pavement”
per commercial vehicle
• Design CBR of subgrade soil = 4%.

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