Performance and Operating Characteristics of IC EngineGeometric parameter of reciprocating engine Y— Ve The performance of the internal combustion engine is characterized with several geometric and thermodynamic parameters The following geometric parameters are of particular interest: bore(B), connecting rod length (1), crank radius (a), stroke (S) and crank angle (@) For any single cylinder, the cranks shaft, connecting rod, piston, and head assembly can be represented by the mechanism shown to the leftGeometric parameter of reciprocating engine © The top dead center TDC of an engine refers to the crankshaft being in a position such that e=0°, © The volume at TDC is minimum and is often called the clearance volume V. © The bottom dead center (BDC) refers to the crankshaft being at e=180°, the volume at BDC is maximum and often denoted by V; a The difference between the V; and V, is the displacement volume VyGeometric parameter of reciprocating engine Si a Engine Capacity (V,) ae Et Qo Paton n- is number of cylinders V, - cylinder swept volume 2 Displacement Rate a7 N Va ~ Va 2 For 4-Stroke EngineGeometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines =n Compression ratio r, “og, Maximum cylinder volume Vz +V. r= bo Minimum cylinder volume YG Ge y™ | 5 F= 8 to 12 for SI engines and r= 12 to 24 for Cl engines; BDC Ratio of Cylinder bore to piston Stroke: \ © B/S = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size engines, about 0.5 for large slow-speed Cl engines;Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines Ratio of Connecting rod length to crank radius: —; we | [ a R= 3 to 4 for small- and medium-size engines, increasing to 5 to 9 for large slow-speed Cl engines. © The stroke and crank radius are related byThe cylinder volume V at any crank position @ BDC The volume of the cylinder can be determined as function of crank angle (&, from the compression ratio, the stroke, bore and connecting rod length. At TDC the crank shaft is at crank angle of 0°. (Clearance volume, V,) At BDC the crank angle is at 180 ° (Maximum cylinder volume, V;)The cylinder volume V at any crank position Q Displacement volume = (Maximum - minimum) cylinder volume Va =Vr -V, 5 The displacement volume can also be represented as a function of the bore and stroke © Vy =—B?S ana a Atagiven crank angle the volume is given by:The cylinder volume V at any crank position @ Sr a Again using geometry, a relationship for x(@) can be developed:The cylinder volume V at any crank position @ BT o The cylinder volume at any crank angle becomes: and setting, p = L gives: a Since, a=$/2 He [1+ 2-cose ~(R? -sin? 0" Non-dimensional form of the above equation becomes,The cylinder volume V at any crank position @ If crank angle is measured from BDC in CCW directionFull throttle operation chemically correct mixture (Y=12.5) Fuel CBHi8 Speed — 4000rpm Tm 300k PL atm Friction and heat transfer neglected Fucl vaporization neglect H crank angle Vere Pr Crank angle Vyep Pr (deg) (cc) (bar) (cc) (bar) 360 636.6 1 ° 636.6 1 35 6298 1 1s 6298 1 390 6094 1 30 6094 14 405 5.3 1 * 45 5753 12 420 5281 1 4 60 5281 1.3 435 469 1 75 469 15 450 4004 1 e 90 4004 1.9 465 3264 1 § 105 3264025 480 2528 1 Fy 120 2528 © 3.6 495 186 1 4 135 186 5.6 510 w2s 1 &, 150 1325 9 525 98 4 165 98 13.7 540 86 1 P 180 86 46.5 540 86 1 180 86 98.2 555 98 1 ° 195 98 819 570 1325 0 1 cm mm mmm 210 1325 53.6 585 186 1 vou ee 225 186 33.4 600 2528 0 1 240 2528 © 217 615 R65 1 255 3265 15.2 630 4004 41 270 400.4 114 645 469 1 285 469 oa 660 5281 1 300 528.1 0 7.7 675 575.3 1 315 575.3 6.9 690 609.4 1 330 6094 86.3 705 6298 1 345, 6298 6 720 636.6 1 360 636.6 éEngine Performance Parameters 4 The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between power developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within the useful range of speed and load.Engine performance ee a Internal combustion engine should generally operate within a useful range of speed, 5 Some engines are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed governor which is its rated speed c At each speed within the useful range, the power output varies and it has a maximum usable value. 2 The specific fuel consumption varies with load and speedEngine performance definition a Absolute Rated Power: The highest power which the engine could develop at sea level with no arbitrary limitation on speed, fuel-air ratio or throttle opening a Maximum rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for short periods of operation. Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in continuous operation. a Rated speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is developedEngine Performance Parameters co The performance an engine is judged by quantifying its efficiencies 0 Five important engine efficiencies are 5 Indicated thermal efficiency (n,,,) “== Indicated Power 5 Brake thermal efficiency (1,,) <7 Brake Power © Mechanical efficiency (N,,) © Volumetric efficiency (n,) & Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (N,.1)Engine Performance Parameters OT c Other Engine performance Parameters © Mean effective pressure (MEP or P_,) 5 Mean piston speed (s,,) © Specific power output (P.) © Specific fuel consumption (sfc) Inlet-valye Mach Index (Z) o Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or Al F) © Calorific value of the fuel (CV)The Energy Flow 8 ee a The energy flow through the engine is expressed in 3 distinct terms G Indicated Power o Brake Power o Friction Power Rejected HeatThe Energy Flow Indicated Prd Work [ Waste Heat Unburned Fuel 2.5% - 5% Expansion ForceThe Energy Flow SS Indicated Work ! Y [ 5%-15% Indicated Work = Friction oO = Shaft WorkIndicated work Ee a The Engine cycle on a P-V coordinates, is often called an indicator diagram. 0 The indicated work per cycle W_, is obtained by integrating around the curve to obtain the area enclosed on the diagram Pressure, P Volume, VGross Indicated Work SS tc The upper loop of the engine cycle of the indicator diagram, the compression and power strokes, where output work is generated is called the gross indicated work,Pump work 2S 1 The lower loop, which includes the intake and exhaust is called Pump work and absorbs work from the engine. © Wide-Open Throttle (WOT) Engine operoted with throttle valve fully open when maximum power and/or speed is desired. Net indicated work isIndicated Work at Part Throttle =e a At WOT the pressure at the intake valve is just below atmospheric pressure, however at part throttle the pressure is much lower than atmospheric Therefore at part throttle the pump work (area B+C) can Prassure, P be significant compared to gross indicated work (area A+C) ‘Specific Volume,Indicated Work with Supercharging/Turbocharged Promeure, a Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake pressures greater than the exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump work Le, Specie Volume. WOE Wie = (Area A)+ (Area B) Supercharges increase the net indicated work but is a parasitic load since they are driven by the crankshaftWork during engine cycle 26 « Indicated Work is the work done by the in-cylinder pressure on the piston during one cycle Wey pave +] par +[ pav) +] Pav IComp. Expansion = Gross Indicated Work is the work done by the in-cylinder pressure during the compression and expansion stroke Maes =| 2M ag * SPAY = Pump Work is the work done by the in-cylinder pressure during the intake and exhaust stroke Wome = | PAV + J par| intake [ExhaustIndicated Power (ip) or (P,) = W.= f P dv Negative work done by Positive work done to Positive work done by piston due to charge the piston due to heat E= compression/expansion cycle compression release and expansion Gross indicated work P 2 P os W= J Pav Wy J Pav 3F= PA (N) Work (W) = FL (Nm) Time (t) = 60 /(N, /k) (3) = W/t = FL.N,/(k*60) (W) Indicated power (P;) cylinder (P) eyincer = (imep.AsL.N) / (ng « 60) ng = 2 (four stroke) Nn, = 1 (two stoke) (Pi) engine = imep. (A.L.n) N) / (ng - 60) n = number of cylinder P, imep. V, -N,/ (np - 60)) (W)Indicated, brake and frictional power 5 LL 0 The indicated power per engine can also be given in terms of indicated work per cycle : where N—cronkshaft speed in rev/s n,- number of crank revolutions per cycle = 2 for 4-stroke = 1 for 2-strokeIndicated, brake and frictional power Ed Dee c The term brake power, P,, is used to specify that the power is measured at the output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load. a Part of the gross indicated work per cycle or power is used to expel exhaust gases and induct fresh charge. 1 An additional portion is used to overcome the friction of the bearings, pistons, and other mechanical components of the engine, and to drive the engine accessories.Power flows in an engine —2LEEEE———eeeeeeeeeeee 0 The power flow through the engine is expressed in 3 distinct terms G Indicated Power Pe o Brake Power Pee o Friction Power Re jected HeatMechanical Efficiency 5 o The ratio of the brake (or useful) power delivered by the engine to the indicated power is called the mechanical efficiency. ppt e Be Py c Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as engine design and engine speed. oO Typical values for a modern automotive engine at wide open or full throttle are 90 percent at speeds below about 30 to 40 rev/s (1800 to 2400 rev/min), decreasing to 75 percent at maximum rated speed.Power Speed Curve Eo Pea PHP, Where: P., = indicated power P.= brake power Power P, = friction power Mechancial efficiency 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 rev/min,Mean effective pressure (mep) 5 a MEP isa fictitious pressure that, if acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that produced during the actual cycle ti Mean effective pressure (mep) is the work done per unit displacement volume. mep = W/Vp 0 The net work during the intake and exhaust strokes is: Wo,ner = (Pi-Pe)Mean effective pressure eT 1 The work per displacement volume required to pump the working fluid into and out of the engine during the intake and exhaust strokes is termed as the pumping work ( W,) and the mean effective pressure is called pumping mean effective pressure (PMEP) We net/Vo =Pmep= (P-P.) The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) is defined as the work per unit displacement volume done by the gas during the compression and expansion stroke. imep = W, Vo 1 or A<1 — Ideal mixture: g=1 or A=1 — Lean mixture: <1 or A>1Volumetric efficiency Cl (7) 0 O The volumetric efficiency is used to measure the effectiveness of an engine's induction process. 5 Volumetric efficiency is usually used with four-stroke cycle engines which haye a distinct induction process. o It is defined as the volume flow rate of air into the intake system divided by the rate at which volume is displaced by the piston: Where: m, is the mass of air inducted into the cylinder per cycle.Volumetric Efficiency SI (n,) a Where number of intake strokes per minutes en=N/2 for 4-S Engines en= N for 2-S Engines eN= speed of engine in rpmVolumetric efficiency 2 Oo Typical values of volumetric efficiency for an engine at wide-open throttle (WOT) are in the range 75% to 90%, going down to much lower values as the throttle is closed. 5 Can be measured: © At the inlet port © Intake of the engine © Any suitable location in the intake manifold a. If measured at the intake of the engine, it is also called the overall volumetric efficiency.Volumetric Efficiency (n,) oS 5 Volumetric efficiency depends upon © throttle opening and engine speed © induction and exhaust system layout, © port size and © valve timing and opening duration. o High volumetric efficiency increases engine power. Oo Volumetric Efficiency can be greater than one where Super charger or turbocharger fitted tu Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric efficiency up to 50%.Volumetric Efficiency =H Petorl (gas) Eninge Diesel Engine Vohmmetic Efficiency (%) Engine Speed (revinin)Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume SS © Engine weight and bulk volume for a given rated power are important in many applications. Two parameters useful for comparing these attributes form one engine to another are: engineWeight engine volume = 8 Specific volume = SMevorme Specific Weight rated power rated power u These parameters indicate the effectiveness with which the engine designer has used the engine materials and packaged the engine components.Calorific Value (CV) ee © Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel when the fuel is burned completely and the products of combustion are cooled back to the initial temperature of the combustible mixture Oo Other terms used for the calorific value are heating value and heat of Combustion. a When the products of combustion are cooled to 25 °C practically all the water vapour resulting from the combustion process is condensed.Calorific Value (CV) 7” ee a When HO is in products is condensed to liquid additional heat is realized and the total heat liberated is called Higher Calorific Value (HCV) a when H,O in the products is in the vapor form heat is not removed this calorific value is called is called Lower calorific Values (LCV) o LCV. = H.C.V. -(Mass of HO * 2454.1 ) in kJEngine Performance Curves Ne Nie 2 B,gp and torque Indicated power Brake power 5 Indicated thermal efficiency Brake thermal efficiency Specific fuel consumption Tuiicated and brake power NEV] “Engine speed evi) SHC [ke UAV 10] ‘Thermal efficiency [Yo] Mep [Nan] Torque [in]Brake Torque and Power measurement mm a Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over the engine operating ranges of speed and load. 4 Dynamometers use various methods to absorb the energy output of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat. 1 Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction brake, hydraulic fluid and magnetic fieldDynamometer vs. Engine Setup Si 0 The Engine is clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor. oO The rotor is coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically or by mechanical friction to a stator o The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured by balancing the stator with weights, springs or pneumatic means.Brake Torque and Power i 0 Work is defined as the product of a force and the distance through which the point of application of the force moves co When the drive shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any point on the periphery of the rigidly attached roter moves through a distance of equalto 2ar © During this movement a friction force, f, is acting on the stator. © The friction force, f, is thus acting through the distance 2mr and producing a workBrake Torque and Power ee 20 Work during one revolution = Distance * f = 2nr*¢ The torque , r*f , produced by the drive shaft is opposed by a turning moment equal to the product of the length of the moment arm b and the force F measured by the scale T= = Fb Work during one revolution = 2nFb Power = Work/Time =2n Fb N/60