Fractals and Physiology: Nature’s Biology and

Geometry
Victoria Fairchild
University Honors in Applied Mathematics
Spring 2014
Advisor: Dr. Stephen Casey
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
The American University
4400 Massachusetts Ave., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20016-8050

Abstract
Fractal geometry is present at nearly every turn of nature and
can be used to describe and analyze natural phenomena that fail to
be explained sufficiently by traditional Euclidean geometry. Within
this paper the foundational principles of fractals will be developed
by means of illustrating examples and then applied to physiology. It
will be shown that fractal analysis can be useful in the description
and interpretation of various physiological structures and processes.
Specifically, this paper will describe the fractal organization of the
lungs and the detection of heart rate variability using fractal analysis.
The program FracLac created by NIH which utilizes the box-counting
method will be used in order to determine fractal dimension of data
that cannot be developed in a mathematical manner easily. This paper
is not intended to be a comprehensive account of the research being
done in the field, but rather an introduction to the utility of fractals
in physiology.

1
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 2

1 Introduction to Nonlinearity
Nonlinear dynamics is a branch of the sciences which is used to study complex
systems and understand many issues encountered when considering physio-
logical form and function. The concept of a fractal arises naturally in these
systems, and can provide valuable information regarding these types of sys-
tems. We first introduce nonlinear systems.
Perhaps the easiest way to understand the concept of nonlinearity is
through understanding what it is not. By comprehending the properties of
linear systems, we can better understand a nonlinear system and the prop-
erties that are not shared with its linear complement. The first property of
linearity is that of proportionality. According to this property, the response
of an action to each separate factor is proportional to its value. Take pushing
a heavy object, for instance. The distance the object moves is proportional
to how hard one pushes the object, and therefore the property of proportion-
ality is fulfilled. Another property of linearity is that of independence. The
property of independence asserts that the overall response of a system to a
particular action is equal to the sum of the results of the impacts of each sep-
arate factor. Considering the previous example, we can see that with more
individuals pushing the heavy object, the greater the speed of the object [12].
According to systems theory, which is used in the analysis of complex
linear systems, a system is considered to be linear if the output of an oper-
ation is directly proportional to the input and the relationship between the
applied force and the response of a physical system can be expressed as:

R = αF + β

where R is the response, F is the applied force, and α and β are con-
stants. Rewriting this equation to include N independent applied forces
→
−
represented by the vector F = (F1 , F2 , F3 , ..., Fn ), the response of the sys-
tem is linear if there exists a vector of independent constant components
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 3

→
−
α = (α1 , α2 , α3 , ..., αn ) such that:

N
→
−
R=→
−
X
α ·F = αj Fj
j=1

It is important to note that the concept of linearity can be expressed in

both an algebraic and geometric manner. In a system with two variables a
geometric expression of linearity implies that if a graph is constructed with
each axis denoting the values of one variable the relation will appear as a
straight line. This relationship appears as higher order flat surface when
more than two variables are present in a system. Although geometric and
algebraic methods of expressing linearity are equivalent in essence, the two
approaches have different implications. Geometric methods of expressing
linearity employ a static graph of a function whereas the algebraic notion of
linearity has to do with the response of a system to a force, which in turn
suggests that the system is dynamic [12].
Unlike linear systems, even the simplest nonlinear systems violate the
principles of proportionality and independence. One example of a nonlinear
system seen in population biology is the logistic equation y = ax(1 − x)
[4]. The quadratic term of this equation gives rise to its nonlinearity, and
describes a parabola. When iterating the seemingly simple logistic equation
it can be seen that complex dynamics exist, and that this single equation
is capable of generating steady states, oscillations, or erratic behaviors [4].
This example shows how for nonlinear systems, proportionality does not hold.
Another property of nonlinear systems that is unlike linear systems is that
nonlinear systems composed of multiple components cannot be understood
through analyzing each individual component. In other words, the property
of independence previously explained does not hold. This characteristic can
be seen when looking at certain biological situations such as the ”cross-talk”
of neurons in the brain [4]. The coupled effects of each component (in this
example, each neuron) cause an output that cannot be explained with a
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 4

linear model. Rather, they may show types of behaviors characteristic of

nonlinear systems. Some of these types of behavior include periodic waves,
abrupt changes, and potentially chaos [4].

2 Introduction to Fractals
The concept of fractals originated in the 17th century with studies conducted
by Karl Weierstrass, Georg Cantor, and Felix Hausdroff. The term fractal
was first coined by Benoit Mandelbrot comes from the Latin word fractus
meaning ”uneven” [10]. In the simplest of terms, fractals are shapes that can
be broken down into smaller shapes where these smaller shapes resemble the
original shape. Fractals are present in a multitude of areas including biology,
medicine, soil mechanics, and technical analysis [7]. Throughout this paper
the mathematical foundations of fractals will be developed as will various
uses and applications of fractals in biology and physiology.
Fractal forms possess a few key related features. First, a fractal is a set
with a detailed fine structure. Magnification of a fractal reveals increasing
amounts of detail which differs from the differentiable curves seen in calculus
[2]. Further, fractals have scale invariance meaning that the smaller scale
structure of fractals resembles the structure of the larger scale. In other
words, the small and large scale structure of fractals are said to be self-similar.
In terms of construction, these sets are produced recursively and cannot be
described easily in terms of Euclidean geometry [1]. Because of the repeated
application of self-similar scales, the length of a fractal line is dependent
upon the scale of measurement [6]. As will be displayed during this paper,
irregular but complex structures of various physiological structures display
the geometric features of fractals. Thus, fractal mathematics can be used to
describe shapes in nature that are failed by traditional geometric description.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 5

2.1 Dimensionality
Fractal is a term used in order to describe an object that has a fractional or
fractal dimension [6]. Fractional dimension refers to an object or structure
that does not have an integer dimension as seen in classical geometry (i.e. a
line with dimension 1, a rectangle with dimension 2, a cube with dimension
3, etc.). Visually, a fractal curve appears wrinkly and greater detail becomes
apparent within the curve upon closer inspection and magnification [6]. Be-
cause of this property, the length of a fractal line will increase as the size
of the ruler or measuring stick decreases. The fractal dimension serves as
a quantitative measure of self-similarity and scaling, and tells us how many
new pieces of the curve are revealed at more detailed resolutions [7]. Various
versions of the fractal dimension exist however the Kolmogorov-Mandelbrot
Dimension DKM , one of the least technical measures of dimension, will be
developed herein.
Casey and Reingold explain the process of determining fractal dimension
stepwise as follows. Considering any closed and bounded set in n-dimensional
Euclidean space Rn where r is any positive number and N (r ) is the minimal
number of closed line segments, balls, or spheres of radius r needed to cover
the set. In order to determine the fractal dimension of the set we must
calculate a number D such that as r → 0, N (r )·r D ∼ 1. This relationship is
referred to as the scaling relationship. Thus, DKM of a set X will be:

log N (r)
DKM = lim
log 1/r

This value represents the number necessary to preserve the scaling relation-
ship previously described. The continuous variable r can be replaced by the
discrete variable rn = ρn , 0 < ρ < 1, n = 1, 2, .... Hence, if:

log N (rn )
∆ = lim
log (1/rn )
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 6

then ∆ = DKM [2]. The process of determining DKM manually will be

followed through at a later point.

2.2 Power Law Relationship

Scale-dependence of a fractal can be modeled by a power law relationship. To
visualize this, a plot of the log of the ruler length vs. the log of the measured
length can be generated. If we let r represent the scale and L(r ) represent
the length measured the following can be produced:

L(r ) = c · r β

In this equation c and β are constants for any particular fractal. By taking
the logarithm of both sides we obtain:

log L(r ) = β · log r + log c

Where β is the gradient or slope of the straight line representing the scaling
relationship [7]. This type of power law scaling relationship is characteristic
of a fractal object or process. A visual representation of this scaling can be
seen below.

Figure 1: For a fractal line there is no characteristic length since the measured
length will differ as the size of the measuring stick varies.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 7

2.3 Self-Similarity
Self-similarity implies that for a fractal a particular property at one magnifi-
cation is the same as that particular property at an alternative magnification.
Mathematically this can be represented by the following:

L(λ · r ) = c(λ · r )β
= c · λβ · r β

In this equation L(λ · r ) is the length measured at a scale of λ · r where

λ is the stretching factor. If we substitute L(r ) = c · r β and set a constant
of proportionality k = λβ we are left with

L(λ · r ) = k ·L(r )

Such indicates that if a property is self similar then measurements of that

property at different scales are proportional [7].

3 Examples of Classical Fractals

3.1 The Cantor Set
Because of the practicality of using fractal dimension to describe self-similar
sets with intricate geometries, we will here further develop the concept of frac-
tal dimension using the Cantor set as an example. Consider the construction
of the Cantor set. Given [0,1] remove the open middle third segment ( 31 , 23 ) .
Next, remove the middle thirds of the two remaining segments. Repeat this
process n times. At the n th stage, there exists 2n segments, each of length
1n
3
.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 8

Figure 2: Visual representation of the construction of the Cantor set.

At the n th stage of construction we can see that 2n line segments of length

1n
3
are needed in order to cover the set. Thus, we have N (3 )·r D = 2 n ( 31 )nD
as the scaling relationship. Following this through we see:

N (r )·r D = 1
⇔ log 2n ( 13 )nD = log 1
⇔ n(log 2 − D log 3) = 0
⇔ D log 3 = log 2
⇔ D = log 2
log 3

log 2
The fractal dimension of the Cantor set then is log 3
.

3.2 Sierpinski Gasket

Using the Sierpinski Gasket as another example of a self-similar set we will
again demonstrate the process of determining fractal dimensionality. In order
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 9

to construct the Sierpinski Gasket start with a filled-in equilateral triangle.

Next, perform a Cantor-like removal process by removing the interior of the
middle equilateral triangle whose vertices are the midpoints of the three
edges. Repeat this process on the three remaining filled-in triangle, and so
on [2].

Figure 3: Visual representation of the construction of Sierpinski’s Gasket.

The Sierpinksi Gasket at the n th stage of construction is made up of 3n

n
equilateral triangles with sides of length 12 . Calculating fractal dimension
in the same manner as before we can see that:

N (r )·r D = 1
⇔ log 3n ( 12 )nD = log 1
⇔ n(log 3 − D log 2) = 0
⇔ D log 2 = log 3
⇔ D = log 3
log 2

log 3
The fractal dimension of the Sierpinski gasket then is log 2
.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 10

4 Fractal Organization of the Pulmonary Tree

Considering the usefulness of fractals in biology, one way in which fractals can
be tremendously helpful is in the description of anatomical and physiological
features. In particular, fractals are useful in describing structures that reveal
finer and finer detail upon microscopic examination where the small-scale
structure resembles the large-scale structure [6]. An example of such can be
seen when analyzing the pulmonary tree and the way in which it appears to
infinitely branch.

Figure 4: The branching pattern of the bronchial tree is self-similar in nature.

In the case of the pulmonary tree, measurements of bronchial dimensions

 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 11

exist and therefore it is possible to develop this idea more mathematically.

In the past, bronchial scalings from one level of branching to the next have
been represented by an exponential curve:

d (z ) = d (z0 )e (az )

Where d (z ) is the average diameter of tubes in the z th generation, d0 is the

tracheal diameter, and a is the characteristic scale factor [6]. This represen-
tation however, is not sufficient beyond the first ten bronchial generations.
Fractal representation, as will be shown, is a better means by characterizing
this anatomical structure.
For a fractal tree like what is seen in the pulmonary tree, there will not
be a single characteristic scale factor. Rather, multiplicity of scales is seen.
These multiple scales of the fractal model will have different probabilities of
occurrence. Modeling the pulmonary tree as a fractal then, it is expected
that bronchial diameter from generation to generation should decrease in
the form of an inverse power law. The bronchial scaling then, d (z ), will be
proportional to the following:

1
d (z ) =
zµ
In this case, µ is the power-law index. Research shows that this fractal
representation and power-law scaling is a good fit for over twenty generations
of pulmonary tree branching. Further, this type of fractal model accounts for
variability not only between generations, but within generations. In particu-
lar, the variation of bronchial diameter within a generation is a consequence
of having multiplicity of scales with different probabilities of occurrence [6].
Overall, modeling the pulmonary tree with a fractal model not only explains
the branching from generation to generation more completely than the tradi-
tionally used exponential model, but also accounts for variability both within
and between branching generations.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 12

Obtaining measurement of the bronchial tree is unrealistic for the scope of

this project, and therefore calculation of fractal dimension of the pulmonary
tree by hand is not possible. Using the box counting method in conjunction
with photographs of the human bronchial tree it becomes possible to obtain
a value for fractional dimension.
The box counting method is a sampling process that can be used to
determine fractional dimension. Essentially, in this method a series of grids of
decreasing calibre are laid over an image and the number of boxes are counted
for each calibre. For each grid calibre, the boxes which have any part of the
important detail in the image are counted. In the box counting method
changing the size of the boxes in the grid is a manner of approximating
scale. By observing the count for how detail changes with scale it becomes
possible to find the slope of the logarithmic regression line, also known as the
fractal dimension. FracLac, a program developed by the National Institutes
of Health, utilizes the box counting method in order to assign fractional
dimension values to images. FracLac was used to analyze the following image,
and a dimension of 1.6638 was determined.

Figure 5: Digital image of the bronchial tree used in conjunction with FracLac to
determine a value for fractal dimension.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 13

Upon noticing that the bronchial tree displays this type of fractal orga-
nization one may question why this type of organization is relevant. The
bronchial tree is a crucial component of the lungs in mammals responsible
for inhalation and exhalation of oxygen. Due to the fact that the bronchial
tree grows as a branching fractal, the surface area across which gaseous ex-
change can occur is increased without significantly increasing the size of the
lungs themselves. A fractal dimension of 1 represents a locally flat struc-
ture, whereas a dimension of 2 represents a locally space filling structure.
Hence, the image above with a fractal dimension of 1.6638 indicates that the
structure is more locally space filling than flat. In terms of functionality, a
more space filling structure allows for greater surface area for gas exchange
to occur. Thus, this example of the bronchial tree displaying fractal organi-
zation depicts one of many instances where fractal geometry contributes to
physiological structure and function.

5 Fractal Analysis of Heart Rate

In addition to fractal geometry being useful in the description of various
biological and physiological structures, fractals can be used to characterize
certain processes. An excellent example of this can be seen when considering
ECG patterns. Often, a signal that varies with time (such as an ECG sig-
nal) must be analyzed to diagnose various diseases. These types of temporal
processes are usually analyzed using Fourier transform technique, chaos dy-
namics, and other complex mathematical techniques [8]. These methods are
complex, not particularly easy to analyze, and often require pre-processing of
data. Hence, a more simple method for analyzing time varying signals would
be useful. Since ECG signals are self similar [8] in nature, fractal analysis
can be used in order to gather information and potentially classify signals.
To explore the idea of classification of ECG signals based on fractal di-
mension four signal images were used in conjunction with FracLac in order
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 14

to determine a value for fractal dimension.

Figure 6: Signals of four different patients retrieved from [5]

Each of these signals were run through the FracLac program with identical
settings and a value for fractal dimension was determined for each.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 15

Figure 7: Fractal dimension of patient A was determined to be 1.4189.

Figure 8: Fractal dimension of patient B was determined to be 1.5368.

Figure 9: Fractal dimension of patient C was determined to be 0.8387.

Figure 10: Fractal dimension of patient D was determined to be 1.6996.

These values for dimensionality represent the amount of ”structure” that

exists within the image. A fractal dimension of 1 represents a curve that is
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 16

locally flat, and a fractal dimension of 2 represents a curve that is locally

space filling. In these four signals, that of patient B is considered to be
normal. Signals A and C are from patients in sinus rhythm with severe
congestive heart failure and D is from a subject with atrial fibrillation, which
produces an erratic heart rate [5].
From these three measurements it can clearly be seen that variability
exists between the fractal dimension of normal and abnormal signals. These
results suggest that in the future it may be possible to use fractal analysis in
classifying signals. Further, it may become possible to use this technology as
a type of preventative analysis. Through performing fractal analysis of ECG
signals (or other quasi-self similar signals of physiological processes) a range
of normal and abnormal fractal dimensions can be developed. With these
ranges established it may be possible to determine the fractal dimension of a
signal from a patient and make a conjecture as to whether or not that patient
is at risk for a particular disease.
Considering the analysis above using FracLac it is important to note
that these images were analyzed without significant preprocessing and that
in order to develop a clinically useful tool it is necessary to determine a
scaling and resolution that produces consistently accurate data. The analysis
above is intended to demonstrate the correlation between visual appearance
and dimension rather than provide fractal dimension values corresponding
to disease and health. In the future with more research it may become
possible that fractal analysis of heart signals could serve as diagnostic tools
for physicians in diagnosis of heart conditions. Further, similar analysis of
brain waves may provide insight into conditions including Parkinson’s and
epilepsy [3].
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 17

6 Conclusion
The information presented above is only a basic introduction into the research
that has been done regarding the utility of fractals in physiology. Within the
past few decades it has become increasingly clear that fractal geometry is
applicable in both physiological structures and functions. With regard to
structure, fractal geometry can be used to describe features including the
bronchial tree, blood vessels, and certain cardiac muscle bundles which all
serve to rapidly and efficiently transport substances over a complex network.
The idea of fractals can be applied beyond physiological form in many cases
and used in analyzing complex processes that lack a single scale of time [5].
Considering these processes, perhaps the most important notion to take away
is the idea that these physiological processes are part of complex feedback
systems. The forces impacting processes such as heart rate or brain waves are
hardly simple, hence the signals derived from these processes are among the
most complex in nature. It is clear that mathematics relating to nonlinear
mechanisms and complex systems can be useful in developing greater knowl-
edge of these systems, however for these tools of analysis to become clinically
useful collaboration between clinicians and mathematicians is necessary.
Research in the field has revealed that scale-invariance appears to be a
general mechanism underlying various structures and functions in physiology
[4]. Given this, the development of new quantitative tools adapted from frac-
tal mathematics to measure healthy variability of is plausible. Additionally,
if we know that certain physiological structures and functions have this type
of fractal central organization we can make potentially useful predictions re-
garding when these processes are disturbed. For instance, if a physiological
system has a fractal-like organization, we can reasonably predict that disease
will be associated with a breakdown of scale-free structure and dynamics.
Paradoxically, although many diseases are coined as dis-orders, many of these
maladies display more regular and periodic behavior than their healthy state
counterparts [4]. This loss of complexity in disease implies that the infor-
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 18

mation content of the physiological system becomes degraded, and therefore

the systems and processes become less able to contend with the constantly
evolving environment of the human body. As the foundation of knowledge
regarding the utility of fractals and non-linear dynamics in physiology con-
tinues to be developed the prospect of physiological monitoring, diagnosis of
disease, and perhaps even therapeutic intervention becomes conceivable.
 FRACTALS AND PHYSIOLOGY 19

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