Dr.

 J. Venkatesan
Professor in Automobile Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Pennalur, Sriperumbudur TK, Chennai ‐ 602 117
World Electricity Generation

2
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with the
relationship between the heat and mechanical energy.
Th
Thermodynamics
d i Laws
L and
d Applications
A li ti
• Thermodynamics laws are formulated based on the experience
and the results of experiments.
• These laws govern the principles of energy transfer.
• These laws are used in the field of energy transfer, like,
steam and nuclear power plants, gas turbines, internal
combustion engines, air conditioning plants, refrigeration, jet
propulsion compressors,
propulsion, compressors chemical process plants,
plants etc.
etc
3
Macroscopic and Microscopic concepts

- In macroscopic approach, the behaviour of the matter is

studied considering a certain quantity of matter (consisting of
many molecules), without the events occurring in the molecular
level.
Action of many molecules can be perceived by human senses.
- In microscopic approach,
approach the matter is composed of myriads
of the molecules and the behaviour of the matter is described
b summing
by i up behaviour
b h i of
f the
th individual
i di id l molecules.
l l

4
Concept of Continuum
- In macroscopic analysis we consider a small amount (small
volume) of matter. This small volume is very large compared to
m l
molecular
l dim si s Even
dimensions. E a very small
sm ll volume
l m of
f a matter
m tt
contains large number of molecules.
Consider the mass δm in a volume δV. The average mass density
is defined as δm/δV.

5
If δV = 0, δm/δV = ∞
If δm = 0,
0 δm/δV = 0
The smallest volume which may be regarded as continuous is
δV’. The
δV Th density
d nsit ρ of
f the
th system
s st m att a point
p int is defined
d fin d ass

Thermodynamic System, Surroundings and Boundary

A thermodynamic system is a specified quantity of matter or a
region in a space upon which the attention is focused on to
analyse the problem.

6
- Everything outside the system is called surroundings.

- The system and surroundings is separated by a boundary.

boundary
The boundary may be real or imaginary, fixed or moving.

There are three types of systems:

• Open system
• Closed system
7
• Isolated system
Open system

The open system

Th t i one in
is i which
hi h both
b th matter
tt (
(mass)
) and
d
energy (work or heat) cross the boundary of the system.

Examples: Steam turbine, Gas turbine, Rotary compressors,

Heat exchangers, Centrifugal pump, Water turbine, etc.

∫
Work Transfer, W = − V dp 8
Closed system
The closed system is a system of fixed mass.
mass In closed system,
system
there is no mass transfer, but energy transfer takes place.

Examples:
E l IC
I.C.engine
i cylinder
li d with
ith th
the b
both
th valves
l closed,
l d
Reciprocating air compressor with both the valves closed.

Work transfer, W =
∫ p dV
9
Isolated system

In isolated system
system, there is no mass or energy transfer across
the boundary of the system.

Universe

The system and surroundings together is called “Universe”.

10
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
The system under Mechanical,
Mechanical Thermal and Chemical equilibrium is
said to be under Thermodynamic equilibrium.
A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when there is no
unbalanced force within the system. (Uniformity of force).
A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium when there is no
chemical reaction between different parts of the system. (Absence
of
f chemical
ch mic l reaction).
cti n)
A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium when there is no
t
temperature
t change
h b t
between diff
different
t parts
t of
f the
th system.
t
(Uniformity of temperature).
Th system under
The d mechanical
h i l and
d thermal
h l equilibrium
ilib i b not under
but d
chemical equilibrium is said to be under meta-stable equilibrium. 11
Thermodynamic Property
Any observable characteristic of the system under
thermodynamic equilibrium is called a property.
E
Examples:
l P
Pressure, T
Temperature, V l
Volume, D
Density.
i
Intensive and Extensive property
The property which is not depending on the mass of the
system is called intensive or intrinsic property.
Examples: Pressure, Temperature, Density, Specific volume
(m3/kg),
/kg) Specific enthalpy (J/kg)
The property which is depending on the mass of the system is
called extensive or extrinsic property.
property
Examples: Volume (m3), Mass (kg), Enthalpy (J) 12
• Consider a system composed of some fluid.
• Measure all the p
properties
p of the system,
y like, p
pressure
(p1), volume (V1), temperature (T1), density (ρ1), enthalpy (H1),
mass (m1),
) specific volume (v1),
) specific enthalpy (h1),
) etc.
etc
• Now, disturb the mass by placing a partition and measure
all
ll the
th properties
p p ti s of
f a part
p t (p2, V2, T2, ρ2, H2, m2, v2, h2).
)
It can be seen that,
p1 = p2 ; T1 = T2 ; V1 ≠ V2 ; ρ1 = ρ2 ; H1 ≠ H2 ; m1 ≠ m2 ;
13
v1 = v2 ; h1 = h2
Thermodynamic State

- A state is the condition of the system at an instant of time

ass described
d scrib d orr measured
m sur d by
b its properties.
pr p rti s

- Or each unique condition of the system is called state.

Example: p = 8 bar & V = 0.5 m3
14
Thermodynamic Path and Process
The succession of states passed through during a change of
state is called the “Path”.
Wh the
When th path
th is
i completely
l t l specified,
ifi d the
th change
h of
f state
t t is
i
called a “Process”.

15
Quasi-static process
Quasi means ‘almost’
almost . A quasi
quasi-static
static process is a succession of
equilibrium states and infinite slowness is its characteristic
f tur
feature.

• Consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder.

• The
Th force
f exerted
t d by
b the
th gass is balanced
b l d by
b the
th weight.
i ht
• The gas is in equilibrium in the initial state. 16
• If the weight is removed, the piston will move up until it hits
the stops.
stops
• The system again comes to equilibrium state.
• The
Th intermediate
int m di t states
st t s between
b t n 1 and
nd 2 are non-equilibrium
n n ilib i m
states and cannot be represented by the thermodynamic
coordinates.

17
- Single weight on the piston is made up of very small pieces of
g
weights and these weights
g are removed one by
y one very
y slowly
y from
the top of the piston
- Att any instant
nstant of the upward travel of the p
piston,
ston, the departure
of the state of the system from equilibrium state will be
infinitesimally small.
small
- So, each intermediate state will be an equilibrium state. Such a
process which is locus of all the equilibrium points is called “Quasi-
Quasi
static process”.

18
Thermodynamic Cycle
- A single process cannot take place continuously without end.
end
- To get continuous work, a set of processes has to be repeated
again
i and
d again.
i
- The set of processes which brings the system to the original
state is called a cycle.
- Continuous work transfer is possible only with a cycle.
Examples: Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual cycle, etc.

19
Work
- Work is one form of energy transfer.
- Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect on
things
g external to the system
y can be reduced to the raising
g of
f
weight.
- The weight may not actually be raised,
raised but the net effect
external to the system would be the raising of a weight.

Work done by a system Æ +ve

Work done on the system Æ - ve
Unit of work Æ Nm (or) J

20
Consider a Battery-motor system driving a fan as shown in fig.
The system is doing work upon the surroundings.

When the
Wh th fan
f is replaced
l d by
b a pulley
ll and
d a weight
i ht ass shown,
sh
the weight may be raised. The sole effect on the things
external to the system is then raising of a weight.

21
pdV work (or) Displacement work

Work done = Force x Distance moved

dW = F x dl = p A dl = p dV
When the piston moves out from position 1 to position 2 with
the volume changing from V1 to V2, the amount of work W done
V2
b the
by th system
s st m will
ill be
b W1− 2 = ∫
V1
p dV
Work transfer = Area under the curve on a p-V diagram
22
Electrical work

Wh
When a current flows
fl through
h h a resistor, there
h is work
k
transfer into the system. This is because the current can
drive a motor, the motor can drive a pulley and the pulley can
raise a weight.

W k transfer,
Work t f W=EI
E Æ Potential difference (Voltage)
I Æ Current
23
Shaft work

When the shaft is rotated by a motor, there is work

transfer into the system. This is because the shaft can rotate
a pulley which can raise a weight. If T is the torque applied to
the shaft and ω is the angular velocity, work transfer can be
written
wr tt n as
W=Tω 24
Paddle-wheel work or stirring work

As the weight is lowered,

lowered and the paddle wheel turns,
turns there is
work transfer into the fluid system which gets stirred. Since
th volume
the l of
f the
th system
s st remains
i s constant,
st t pdV
dV work
k is zero.
If m is the mass of the weight lowered through a distance dZ
and T is the torque transmitted by the shaft in rotating
through an angle of dθ, the work transfer is given by,
2 2
W = ∫
1
W ' dz = ∫
1
T dθ 25
Flow work
- The flow is significant in open system.
system
- This work represents the energy transferred across the
s st m boundary
system b d ass a result
s lt of
f the
th energy imparted
im t d to
t the
th
fluid by a pump, blower or compressor to make the fluid to
flow across the control volume.
Flow work is given by, W = p V

26
Work done in stretching a wire
Let us consider a wire of length L, subjected to a tension
force T. The infinitesimal amount of work is done on the wire
which makes the wire to stretch to a length L + dL.
dL

2
W =− ∫1
T dL

N
Negative
ti work
k Æ The
Th work
k is
i done
d on the
th wire.
i
27
Work done in changing the area of a surface film
- A film on the surface of a liquid has a surface tension,
tension which
is a property of the liquid and the surroundings.
- The
Th surface
s f t si
tension acts
ts to
t make
m k the
th surface
s f are of
f the
th
liquid a minimum.
- The work done on a homogeneous liquid film in changing its
surface area by an infinitesimal amount dA is
2
W =− ∫1
σ dA

σ Æ Surface tension (N/m)

28
 Magnetization of a paramagnetic solid
The work done per unit volume on a magnetic material
through which the magnetic and magnetization fields are
unif rm is
uniform
I2
W = ∫
I1
H dI

H Æ Field strength
I Æ Component
C t of
f the
th magnetization
ti ti field
fi ld in
i the
th direction
di ti
of the field

29
Heat
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
across the boundary by virtue of a temperature difference.
The temperature difference is ‘potential’
potential and heat transfer
per unit area is ‘flux’.

30
Ideal and Real gases
• An ideal gas or perfect gas is a hypothetical gas consisting of
identical particles of zero volume, with no intermolecular
forces.
• Additionally, the constituent atoms or molecules undergo
perfectly elastic collisions with the walls of the container.
• Real gases do not exhibit these exact properties.
• Gases are most ideal at high temperatures and low pressure.
• An ideal g
gas obeys
y the p
perfect
f gas law.
g
• The specific heats are constant.

Perfect gas law, p V = n Ru T = m R T

31
 p Æ Pressure in Pa
V Æ Volume in m3
n Æ Amount of ggas in kg-mole
g =m/M
M Æ Molecular weight
Ru Æ Universal gas constant = 8314 J/kg-mole K
m Æ Amount of gas in kg
R Æ Characteristic
Ch t i ti gas constant
t t in
i J/kg
J/k K
T Æ Temperature of gas in K

- In
I reality
lit there
th i no ideal
is id l or perfect
f t gas.
- At a very low pressure and at a very high temperature, real
gases like nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, helium, etc., behave as
perfect gases. These gases are called ‘Semi perfect’ or
‘Permanent’ gases.
- For real gases specific heats vary appreciably with
temperature and little with pressure. 32
 Internal energy and enthalpy
Internal Energy Æ Energy possessed by the system.
system
Joule’s law states that the specific internal energy of a gas
d
depends
d only
l on the
th temperature
t t of
f the
th gas and
d is
i independent
i d d t
of both pressure and volume.
u = f(T)
Enthalpy Æ Total heat content of the flowing fluid
From definition of enthalpy, h = u + pv
But p
pv = RT
Therefore, h = u + RT and h also function of temperature
only
only.
h = f(T) 33
Specific heats
Specific heat at constant volume is defined as the amount of
heat required to rise the temperature of 1 kg of fluid through
1oC when
h n the
th volume
lum is kept
k pt constant.
nst nt
The specific heat capacity at constant volume is defined as
⎛ ∂u ⎞
Cv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂T ⎠ v
We know
k that
h u = f(T).
f( ) Therefore
h f

du
Cv =
dT

34
Specific heat at constant pressure is defined as the amount of
heat required to rise the temperature of 1 kg of fluid through
1oC when the pressure is kept constant.
Th specific
The sp cific heat
h t capacity
c p cit att constant
c nst nt pressure
pr ssur is defined
d fin d ass

⎛ ∂h ⎞
Cp = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂T ⎠ p

We know that h = f(T). Therefore

dh
Cp =
dT

35
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If the bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with the third
body C, then these two bodies A and B will be in thermal
equilibrium
quilib ium with
ith each
h other.
th
This law is the basis for measurement of temperature.

If TA = TC & TB = TC then TA = TB

Application of Zeroth law

It is the basis for temperature measurement. 36

First Law of thermodynamics
I-Corollary:
For a cycle:
Wh
Whenever a system
t undergoes
d a cyclic
li change,
h th algebraic
the l b i
sum of heat transfer is proportional to the algebraic sum of
work transfer.
Net heat transfer = Net work transfer

∫ dQ =
∫ dW

37
 For a process:
dQ = dW + dU
or Q = W + ΔU
ΔU = Change
Ch i internal
in i t l energy = m Cv Δ T
m = Mass of the working fluid
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume
Δ T = Change in temperature

II-Corollary: (Law of Conservation of Energy)

I an isolated
In i l t d system,
t th energy of
the f the
th system
t remains
i
constant.
Q=W=0 & ΔU=0
38
III-Corollary: (PMM-I)
PMM-I
PMM I is impossible. (Perpetual Motion Machine of First kind
produces work continuously without any input).

39
Application of I-Law to Non-Flow or Closed system

Let
Let, m = Mass of the working fluid
p1 = Initial pressure of the working fluid
p2 = Final
Fi l pressure of
f the
h working
ki fluid
fl id
T1 = Initial temperature of the working fluid
T2 = Final temperature of the working fluid
U1 = Initial internal energy of the fluid
U2 = Final internal energy of the fluid
W = Work transfer
Q = Heat transfer
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume 40
Constant volume process (Isometric process)
In a constant volume process the working fluid is contained in
a closed vessel. The boundary of the system is immovable and
hence no work transfer is possible through boundary of the
system.
Consider a vessel containing m kg of certain gas. Q J of heat is
supplied to the gas and there will be pressure rise, but the
volume remains constant.

41
During constant volume process, dV = 0
General gas equation Æ
pV
=C
T

For constant volume process,

p
=C
T

Work transfer = W = ∫ p dV = 0 ;
As per I-law for a process, Q=W+ΔU
Q = Δ U = m Cv (T2 – T1)

42
Constant pressure process (Isobaric process)

During constant pressure process, p = C

pV
General gas equation Æ =C
T
V
For constant pressure process, =C
T 43
Work transfer
2
W =
∫ p dV = p ∫ dV = p (V
1
2 − V1 )

A per I-law
As I l for
f a process,
Q=W+ΔU
Q = p (V2 – V1) + m Cv (T2 – T1)
= m R (T2 – T1) + m Cv (T2 – T1)
= m (R + Cv) (T2 – T1)
= m Cp ((T2 – T1)

44
Constant temperature process (Isothermal process or
Hyperbolic process)
- A process at a constant temperature is called an isothermal
process.
- When a working substance in a cylinder behind a piston
expands from a high pressure to a low pressure there is a
tendency for the temperature to fall.
- In an isothermal expansion heat must be added continuously
in order to keep
p the temperature
p at the initial value.
- Similarly in an isothermal compression heat must be removed
from working fluid continuously during the process.
process
45
During constant temperature process, T = C
General gas equation Æ pV
=C
T
For constant temperature process, pV = C
C dV ⎡V2 ⎤
Work transfer, W = ∫ pdV = ∫ dV = C ∫ = pV ln ⎢ ⎥
V V ⎣ V1 ⎦
⎡V2 ⎤ ⎡V2 ⎤
= p1V1 ln ⎢ ⎥ = p 2V2 ln ⎢ ⎥
⎣ V1 ⎦ ⎣ V1 ⎦ 46
As per I-law for a process, Q = W + Δ U
⎡V2 ⎤
= pV ln ⎢ ⎥ + m C v (T2 − T1 )
⎣ V1 ⎦

⎡V2 ⎤ ⎡V2 ⎤
= pV ln ⎢ ⎥ + 0 = p1V1 ln ⎢ ⎥
⎣ V1 ⎦ ⎣ V1 ⎦

During
g isothermal p
process, Q = W
Note: The isothermal and hyperbolic processes are identical
only in the case of a perfect gas and not for a vapour.
vapour For
example the isothermal expansion of wet steam is not
hyperbolic
hyperbolic.
47
Constant entropy process (Isentropic process)
- In an isentropic process,
process the heat transfer between the
working fluid and surroundings is zero.
- During
D in isentropic
is nt pi process,
p ss Q = 0
The governing equation for isentropic or reversible adiabatic
process is, p Vγ = C

γ Æ Specific heat ratio = Cp/Cv

48
 2 2

∫ ∫ Vγ dV =C∫ Vγ
C dV
Work transfer, W = p dV =
1 1
− γ +1 V2
⎡V ⎤
=C ⎢ ⎥
⎣ − γ + 1 ⎦ V1
⎡V −γ +1 − V −γ +1 ⎤
=C ⎢ 2 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ −γ +1 ⎥⎦
⎡V −γ +1 − V −γ +1 ⎤
= pV γ ⎢ 2 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ −γ +1 ⎥⎦
⎡ p 2V 2 − p1V1 ⎤
pV
Vγ = p1V1γ = p2V2 γ =C
C, W = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1− γ ⎦
Heat transfer = Q = W + ΔU = 0
Therefore we can write, W = - ΔU = - m Cv (T2 – T1)49
Polytropic process
In polytropic process,
process there is heat transfer between the
working fluid and surroundings. Pressure, volume and
t
temperature
t are variables
i bl s during
d i a process.
ss
The governing equation for polytropic process is,
p Vn = C
n Æ Polytropic index
⎡ p 2V 2 − p1V1 ⎤ ⎡ mR (T 2 − T1 ) ⎤
By replacing γ by n, W =⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1− n ⎦ ⎣ 1− n ⎦

Heat transfer = Q = W + Δ U

⎡ mR (T 2 − T1 ⎤
Q =⎢ ⎥ + m C v (T 2 − T1 )
⎣ 1− n ⎦
50
 ⎡ mR (T 2 − T 1 ) ⎛ C (1 − n ) ⎞ ⎤
=⎢ ⎜⎜ 1 + v ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣ 1− n ⎝ R ⎠⎦
⎡ mR (T 2 − T 1 ) ⎛ R + Cv − Cv n) ⎞⎤
=⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣ 1− n ⎝ R ⎠⎦

⎡ mR (T − T ) ⎛ C p − Cv + Cv − Cv n ) ⎞⎤
=⎢ 2 1 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ 1− n ⎜ C p − Cv ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎡ mR (T − T ) ⎛ C p − C v n ) ⎞ ⎤
=⎢ 2 1 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ 1− n ⎜ C p − Cv ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

Dividing both numerator and denominator by Cv

⎡ mR
R (T 2 − T 1 ) ⎛ γ − n) ⎞⎤
Q =⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1− n ⎝ γ −1 ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡⎛ γ − n ) ⎞ ⎤
Q = ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ W ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ γ − 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 51
Free expansion process (Constant internal energy process)

• Consider two vessels A and B interconnected by a short pipe

with a valve ‘V’, and perfectly thermally insulated.
• Initially
I iti ll let
l t the
th vessell A be
b filled
fill d with
ith a fluid
fl id att a certain
t i pressure
and let vessel B be completely evacuated. When the valve V is
opened, the fluid in vessel A will expand rapidly to fill the vessel B.
• The pressure finally will be lower than the initial pressure in the
vessel A.
• This is known as “Free or Unrestricted expansion”.
p
• The process is highly irreversible, since the fluid is eddying
continuously during the process.
process
52
In free expansion
p process,, W = 0; Q = 0;
p
As per I-Law, Q=W+ΔU
ΔU=0
∴ U2 = U 1 53
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) (I-Law for open
system)
Consider a system as shown in fig. Let m kg/s of working fluid
is entering and leaving the system.
system

Let
Let, m = Mass flow rate of fluid through the system --- kg/s
U1 = Internal energy of the fluid at inlet --- J
C1 = Velocity of the fluid at inlet --- m/s 54
 p1 = Pressure of the fluid at inlet -- Pa
V1 = Volume flow rate of fluid at inlet --- m3/s
Z1 = Height of the inlet section from datum --- m
Q = Heat transfer through the system --- W
W = Work transfer through the system --- W

U2, C2, p2, V2 and

d Z2 are corresponding
di values
l att outlet
tl t

In addition to internal energy, other forms of energy

associated with the mass entering and leaving the system is
considered
cons dered here.
Kinetic energy of fluid = m C2/2
Potential energy of the fluid = m g Z
Flow energy of fluid = pV

55
 Between inlet and outlet, the energy equation can be
written as,

C12 C2 2
U1 + p1V1 + m + mgZ1 + Q = U 2 + p2V2 + m + mgZ2 + W
2 2
C12 C2 2
mu1 + mp1v1 + m + mgZ1 + Q = mu 2 + mp2v 2 + m + mgZ 2 + W
2 2
C12 C22
mh1 + m + mgZ
g 1 + Q = mh 2 + m + mgZ
g 2 +W
2 2

Where, v Æ Specific volume = V/m

u Æ Specific internal energy = U/m
h Æ Specific
p enthalpy
py = u + p
pv

56
Application of I-Law to open system
Water turbine
In a water turbine water is supplied from a height. The
potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy
when it enters into the turbine and part of it is converted into
useful work which is used to generate electricity.

57
SFEE is given by,
C12 C2 2
mu1 + mp
p1v1 + m + mgZ
g 1 + Q = mu 2 + mp
p 2v 2 + m + mgZ
g 2 +W
2 2
Generally in water turbine,
H t transfer
Heat t f (Q) = 0;
0 Z2 = 0;
0 v1 = v2; T1 = T2 or U1 = U2
Energy equation becomes,
C12 C2 2
mp1v1 + m + mgZ1 = mp2v 2 + m +W
2 2

Note: W is positive since work is done by the system.

58
Steam or Gas turbine
In a steam or gas turbine,
turbine steam or gas is passed through the
turbine and part of its energy is converted into work in the
t bin
turbine.
The output of the turbine runs a generator to produce
electricity.

Generally in steam or gas turbine,

Z2 – Z1 = 0; Q = 0 (insulated turbine); Q = - ve if not
perfectly insulated.
C12 C22
Energy equation becomes, mh1 + m − Q = mh 2 + m +W
2 2 59
Note: W is positive since work is done by the system. Q is
negative since the heat is transferred from the hot casing to
low temperature surroundings.
surroundings
Water pump
A water pump draws water
from a lower level and
pumps it to higher level.
W k is
Work i required
i d to
t run
the pump and this may be
supplied
pp from an external
source such as an electric
motor or a diesel engine.
Generally in water pump,
pump
Heat transfer (Q) = 0; v1 = v2; T1 = T2 or U1 = U2
Energy equation becomes, 2 2
C C
mp1v 1 + m 1 + mgZ 1 = mp 2 v 2 + m 2 + mgZ 2 − W
2 2
60
Note: W is negative since work is done on the system.
Centrifugal air compressor
A centrifugal compressor compresses air and supplies the
same at moderate pressure and in large quantity.

Generally in centrifugal compressor,

compressor
Z2 – Z1 = 0; Q = - ve if not perfectly insulated.
Energy equation becomes, C 2 C 2
h1 + m 1 − Q = mh
mh h2 + m 2 −W
2 2

Note: W is negative
g since work is done on the system.
y Q also is
negative since the heat is transferred from the hot casing to
low temperature surroundings. 61
Reciprocating air compressor
The reciprocating air compressor draws in air from
atmosphere and supply it at relatively higher pressure and in
small quantity. The velocity of air entering and leaving the
compressor is generally very small and is neglected.

Generally in reciprocating
compressor,
compressor
Z2 – Z1 = 0; C1 = C2; Q = - ve if not
perfectly insulated.
E
Energy equation
ti becomes,
b
C12 C22
m −Q = m −W
2 2

Note: W is negative since work is done on the system. Q also

is negative since the heat is transferred from the hot casing
to low temperature surroundings.
62
Heat Exchangers
A heat exchanger is a device to transfer heat from one fluid
to another fluid through walls. There is enthalpy change.
E
Examples:
l s: Boiler,
B il C d s
Condenser, E
Evaporator.
t
Generally in heat exchangers,
Z2 – Z1 = 0; C1 = C2;
Q = + ve in boilers and evaporators
Q = - ve in evaporators

63
Boilers:
A boiler p
produces high
g temperature
p vapour
p absorbing
g heat from the
external source. The heat is transferred to liquid.
gy equation
Energy q becomes,, mh1 + Q = mh2
Condensers:
A condenser is a device to condense the vapour by rejecting its heat
to the cooling medium. Here the heat is rejected by the system.
Energy equation becomes,
becomes mh1 − Q = mh 2

Evaporators:
A evaporator
An t isi device
d i which
hi h produces
d l
low t
temperature
t vapour by
b
absorbing heat from relatively hot source. Here the heat is
absorbed
b b d byb the
th system.
t
Energy equation becomes, mh1 + Q = mh 2 64
Steam nozzle
Steam nozzles are used in steam engines and steam power
plants. It converts the pressure energy into kinetic energy.
G n
Generally
ll the
th nozzles
n l s are insulated.
insul t d In steam
st m nozzles
n l s the
th
steam is expanded isentropically.

Generally
y in nozzles, Z2 – Z1 = 0; Q = 0; W = 0;
C 12 C22
Energy equation becomes, mh 1 + m = mh 2 + m
2 2
The exit velocity of the steam can be written as,
C2 = C12 + 2(h1 − h2 ) 65
Throttling process (Constant enthalpy process)
When a fluid flows through a constricted passage,
passage like a
partially opened valve, an orifice, or a porous plug, there is an
appreciable
pp i bl drop
d p in pressure
p ss and
nd the
th flow
fl is said
s id to
t be
b
throttled. The fig shows the process of throttling by an
orifice. The pipe is perfectly insulated.

Heat transfer (Q) = 0

Work transfer (W) = 0
C1 = C2 ; Z1 = Z2
Energy equation becomes, h 1 = h 2
66
Path and Point functions
Work and Heat-Path functions
- Consider a process 1-2 as shown
- The p
process 1-2 may
y follow a p
path A,, B or C.

2
∫1
dW = W2 − W1
Work or heat depends
p on the p
path of the system,
y , but not on
the end states. For this reason, work or heat is called a path
function. W1-2 or Q1-2 is an inexact or imperfect differential.67
Thermodynamic properties are point functions, since for a
given state,
state there is a definite value for each property.
property
- The change in a thermodynamic property of a system in a
change
h of
f state
st t is independent
i d d t of
f the
th path
th of
f the
th system
s st m and
d
depends only on the end states of the system.
- The differentials of point functions are exact or perfect
differentials.
V2
∫V1
dV = V2 − V1

Note: In a cyclic process

process, the change in any property is
zero.
∫ dV = 0, ∫ dp = 0, ∫ dT = 0
68
Internal energy – A property of the system
Consider a system which changes its state from state 1 to
state 2 by following the path A and returns to its original
st t 1 following
state f ll in (i) the
th path
p th B and
nd (ii) the
th path
p th C.
C
Consider a cycle 1-A-2-B-1.
As per I-law for a cycle,

∫ dQ = ∫ dW
Q A + Q B = WA + W B
QA – WA = WB – QB ---- (1)
For a process 1-A-2,
QA = WA + ΔU
Δ A
QA – WA = ΔUA ---- (2)
69
For a process 2-B-1, QB = WB + ΔUB
WB – QB = - ΔUB ---- (3)
Therefore, from (1), (2) and (3), we can write,
ΔUA = - ΔUB ---- (4)
Consider a cycle 1-A-2-C-1.
QA + QC = WA + WC
QA – WA = WC – QC ---- (5)
For a process 2-C-1, QC = WC + ΔUC
WC – QC = - ΔUC ---- ((6))
Therefore, from (2), (5) and (6), we can write,
ΔUA = - ΔUC ---- (7)
From (4) and (7), ΔUC = ΔUB 70
From the above, it can be concluded that the internal energy
depends on end states and independent of path. Therefore the
internal energy is a property.
property
Units of important parameters
P ss
Pressure ( )
(p) N/m2 (or)
N/ ( ) Pa
P
Temperature (T) K
Volume (V) m3
Volume flow rate (V ) ∗
m3/s
Mass (m) kg
Mass flow rate (m ) kg/s
∗

Velocity (C) m/s

Angular velocity (ω) rad/s
Speed (N) rpm

71
Energy Nm (or) J
Force (F) N
Power (P) J/s (or) W
Specific heat (Cp or Cv) J/kg-K (or) J/kg oC
Characteristic Gas constant (R) J/kg-K
Universal gas constant (Ru) 8134 J/kmol-K
Molar volume or Molecular volume (Vm) m3/kmol
Molecular mass (M) amu
Enthalpy (H) J
Specific enthalpy (h) J/kg
Entropy (S) J/K
Specific entropy (s) J/kg-K
Molar specific heat (Cp(mole) or Cv(mole)) J/kmol-K
72
Gravitational acceleration (g) 9.81 m/s2
Problem 1: Following amount of heat transfer occurs during
a cycle comprising of four processes. Calculate the
workdone of the cycle and indicate about the type of work.
work
+120 kJ, -20 kJ, +16 kJ and +24 kJ.

Given: Cycle with four processes

Heat transfer during process 1 – 2 = Q1-2 = 120 kJ
g
Heat transfer during process 2 – 3 = Q22-33 = - 20 kJ
p
Heat transfer during process 3 – 4 = Q3-4 = 16 kJ
Heat transfer during process 4 – 1 = Q4-1 = 24 kJ
R
Required:
i d Workdone
W kd and
d type
t of
f work
k
Solution: I-law for cycle Æ
∫ dQ =
∫ dW

∫ dW =120 + (−20) + 16 + 24 =140 kJ

The workdone is positive, therefore the work is done by the
system.
73
Problem 2: The following data refer to a closed system
which undergoes a thermodynamics cycle consisting of four
processes Show that the data is consistent with the I-law
processes.
of thermodynamics and calculate, (a) Net rate of work
output in kW and (b) Change in internal energy.
Process Heat Transfer Work Transfer
(kJ/min) (kJ/min)
1–2 Nil - 1000
2–3 40,000 Nil
3–4 - 4,000 26,000
4–5 - 12,000 - 1000

Given: Q1-2 = 0, Q2-3 = 40000 kJ/min, Q3-4 = -4000 kJ/min,

Q4-1 = -12000
12000 kJ/min
W1-2 = -1000 kJ/min, W2-3 = 0, W3-4 = -4000 kJ/min,
W4-1 = -12000 kJ/min
74
Required: (a) Net work in kW (b) Δ U
Solution:
(a) I-law for cycle Æ Net heat transfer = Net work
transfer
∫ dQ = dW
∫
∫ dW = − 1000 + 0 + 26000 − 1000 = 24000 kJ / min

= 24000 / 60 = 400 kW

∫ dQ = 40000 − 4000 − 120000 = 24000 kJ / min

= 24000 / 60 = 400 kW

∫ dQ =
∫ dW

Therefore, the data is consistent with the I-law of

thermodynamics.
75
(b) Change in internal energy during process 1 – 2 = U2 – U1
I-law for a process
Q=W+ΔU
U2 – U1 = Q1-2
1 2 – W1-2
1 2

= 0 – (-1000) = 1000 kJ/min

U3 – U2 = Q2-3 – W2-3
= 40000 – 0 = 40000 kJ/min
U4 – U3 = Q3-4 – W3-4
= -4000 - 26000 = -30000 kJ/min
U1 – U4 = Q4-1 – W4-1
= -12000 – ((-1000)) = -11000 kJ/min

76
Problem 3: Calculate the workdone when the volume
changes from 4 m3 to 8 m3 through a non-flow quasi-static
process in which the pressure p is given by,
by p = (4 V – 5)
bar.
Given: A process
I iti l volume
Initial l (V1) = 4 m3
Final volume (V2) = 8 m3
p = (4 V – 5) bar
Required: Workdone
Solution
u
Work transfer in non-flow process is
2
W=
∫ p dV
1
2

∫
= (4V − 5) dV x 105
1 77
 ⎡ 4V 2 ⎤
= ⎢ − 5 V ⎥ x 10 5

⎣ 2 ⎦ 1

= [ 4 (V22 – V12) / 2 – 5 (V2 – V1)] x 105

= [4 x (82 – 42)/2 – 5 x (8 – 4)] x 105
= 76 x 105 J – Ans
Problem 4: The internal energy of a certain substance is
given by the equation u = 3.56 p v + 84, where u is given
in kJ/kg,
kJ/kg p is in kPa and v is in m3/kg.
/kg A system composed
of 3 kg of this substance expands from an initial pressure
of 500 kPa and a volume of 0.22 m3 to a final pressure of
100 kPa
kP ini a process ini which
hi h pressure and d volume
l are
related by pV1.2 = C. (a) If the expansion is quasi-static,
find heat transfer, workdone and changeg in internal energy
gy
for the process.
78
(b) In another process the same system expands according
to the same pressure-volume relationship as in part (a),
and from the same initial state to the same final state as
in part (a), but the heat transfer in this case is 30 kJ.
Find the work transfer for this process (c) Explain the
diff
difference i work
in k transfer
f ini part (a)
( ) and
d part (b).
(b)
Given:
Specific internal energy,
energy u = 3.56
3 56 p v + 84 kJ/kg
Mass of the working fluid (m) = 3 kg
Initial pressure (p1) = 500 kPa
Initial volume (V1) = 0.22 m3
Final pressure (p2) = 100 kPa
Index of expans
expansion
on (n) = 1.2
.
Required: (a) Q, W, Δ U (b) W (c) Difference W in (a) and (b)
Solution:
(a) Heat transfer during a process, Q = W + Δ U 79
 u = 3.56 p v + 84
u1 = 3.56
3 56 p1 v1 + 84
u2 = 3.56 p2 v2 + 84
Δ = 3.56
Δu 3 56 (p2 v2 – p1 v1)
ΔU = m Δu and V=mv
ΔU = 3.56 (p2 V2 – p1 V1)
To find V2 V2 ⎛ p1 ⎞
1/ n
= ⎜⎜ ⎟
V1 ⎝ p2 ⎟⎠
1 / 1 .2
V2 ⎛5⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
0.22 ⎝ 1 ⎠
V2 = 0.841 m3
∴ U = 3.56
ΔU 3 56 (100 x 0.841
0 841 – 500 x 0.22)
0 22)
= - 92.204 kJ --- Ans 80
Process follows the law pV1.2 = C.
W = (p2V2 – p1V1) / (1 – n)
= (100 x 103 x 0.841 – 500 x 103 x 0.22) (1 – 1.2)
= 129500 J = 129.5
129 5 kJ --- Ans
A
Q1-2 = W1-2 + Δ U
= 129.5 – 92.204 = 37.296 kJ --- Ans
(b) Heat transfer = 30 kJ
W1-2 = Q1-2 – Δ U
= 30 – ((- 92.204)) = 122.204 kJ --- Ans
(c) The work in part (b) is not equal to ∫p dV. The process in
part (b) is not quasi-static.
quasi static
81
Problem 5: A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring
loaded, frictionless piston so that the pressure in the fluid
is a linear function of the volume (p = a + bV). bV) The
internal energy of the fluid is given by the equation,
U = 34 + 3.15 p V, where, U is in kJ, p is in kPa and V is
i m3. If the
in th fluid
fl id changes
h f
from an initial
i iti l state
t t of f 170
kPa, 0.03 m3 to a final state of 400 kPa, 0.06 m3, with no
work other than that done on the p piston,, find the direction
and magnitude of the work and heat transfer.
Given:
Pressure
P p = a + bV
b
Internal energy (U) = 34 + 3.15 pV kJ
Initial p
pressure (p1) = 170 kPa
Initial volume (V1) = 0.03 m3
Final pressure (p2) = 400 kPa
Final volume (V2) = 0.06
0 06 m3
Required: W and Q 82
Solution:
U1 = 34 + 3.15
3 15 p1V1
U2 = 34 + 3.15 p2V2
Δ U = 3.15
3 15 (p
( 2V2 – p1V1)
= 3.15 x (400 x 103 x 0.06 – 170 x 103 x 0.03)
= 59535 J
p1 = a + b V1
170 = a + 0.03 b --- (1)
p2 = a + bV2
400 = a + 0.06 b --- (2)
From (1) and (2) 230 = 0.03
0 03 b,
b b = 7666.67
7666 67 kPa
Substituting in (1), a = - 60 kPa 83
 2 2
W=
∫
1
∫
p dV = (a + bV ) dV
1

= [a V + b V2/2] = a (V2 – V1) + b (V22 – V12)/2

= - 60 x (0.06 – 0.03) + 7666.67 x (0.062 – 0.032) /2
= 8.55 kJ = 8550 J --- Ans
Work is positive, i.e., Work is done by the system.
Q1-2 = W1-2 + Δ U
= 8550 + 59535 = 68085 J --- Ans
Heat transfer is positive, i.e., Heat is supplied to the
system.

84
Problem 6: A steam turbine operates under steady flow
conditions. It receives 7200 kg/h of steam from the
boiler The steam enters the turbine at enthalpy of 2800
boiler.
kJ/kg, a velocity of 4000 m/min and an elevation of 4 m.
The steam leaves the turbine at enthalpy of 2000 kJ/kg, a
velocity
l it of f 8000 m/min
/ i andd an elevation
l ti of
f 1 m. Due
D t
to
radiation, heat losses from the turbine to the surroundings
amount to 1580 kJ/h. Calculate the output
p of the turbine.
Given:
Mass flow rate of steam (m) = 7200 kg/h = 2 kg/s
Initial specific enthalpy (h1) = 2800 kJ/kg
Initial velocity (C1) = 4000 m/min = 66.67 m/s
Elevation of inlet (Z1) =1m
Fi l specific
Final ifi enthalpy
th l (h2) = 2000 kJ/kg
kJ/k
Final velocity (C2) = 8000 m/min = 133.3 m/s
Elevation of outlet (Z2) =4m
Heat losses from turbine (Q) = -1580 kJ/h = 0.4388 kJ/s
Required: Work output
85
Solution:
2 2
SFEE is given by
by, mhh1 + m C1 + mgZ
Z 1 + Q = mh
h2 + m
C 2 + mgZ
Z2 + W
2 2
m (h1 – h2) + m (C12 – C22)/2 + m g (Z1 – Z2) + Q = W

W = 2 (2800 – 2000) x 103 + 2 x (66.672 – 133.32)/2

+ 2 x 9.81 x ((1 – 4)) – 0.4388 x 103
= 1586178.3 W --- Ans
Problem 7: Steam enters a nozzle at a pressure of 7 bar
and 20oC (initial enthalpy = 2850 kJ/kg) and leaves at a
pressure of 1.5 bar. The initial velocity of steam at the
entrance is 40 m/s and the exit velocity of steam from
nozzle is 700 m/s. The mass flow rate through the nozzle
is 1400 kg/h. The heat loss from the nozzle is 11705
kJ/h Determine the final enthalpy of steam and nozzle
kJ/h.
area if the specific volume at outlet is 1.24 m3/kg. 86
Given:
Initial pressure (p1) = 7 bar
Initial velocity (C1) = 40 m/s
Initial enthalpy (h1) = 2850 kJ/kg
Final velocity (C2) = 700 m/s
Specific
f volume
l at outlet
l (v( 2) = 1.24
1 24 m3/kg
/k
Mass flow rate (m) = 1400 kg/h = 0.389 kg/s
Heat loss ffrom nozzle (Q) = -11105 kJ/h = -3251.4 J/s
Required: h2 and A2
Solution:
SFEE is given by, m (h1 – h2) + m (C12 – C22) / 2 + m g (Z1 – Z2) + Q = W

Assume Z1 – Z2 = 0 if not given.

given For nozzle W = 0
m (h1 – h2) + m (C12 – C22) + Q = 0

0.389 x (2850 - h2) x 103 + 0.389 x (402 – 7002) / 2 – 3251.4 = 0

87
h2 = 2614.16 kJ/kg ---- Ans
Mass flow rate (m) = A2 C2 / v2 = A1 C1 / v1
0.389 = A2 x 700 / 1.24
A2 = 0.000689 m2 --- Ans

Problem 8: Air flows at the rate of 0.5 kg/s through an

air compressor, entering at 7 m/s, 100 kPa and 0.95 m3/kg
and leaving at 5 m/s, m/s 700 kPa,
kPa and 0.19
0 19 m3/kg.
/kg The
internal energy of air leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater than that
of the air entering. Cooling water in the compressor
j k t absorbs
jackets b b heath t from
f th air
the i att the
th rate
t of
f 58 kW.
kW
(a) Compute the rate of shaft work input to the air in kW
((b)) Find the ratio of the inlet p
pipe
p diameter to outer p
pipe
p
diameter.
Given:
Mass
M ss flow
fl rate
t (m)
( ) = 0.5
0 5 kg/s
k /s
Initial velocity (C1) = 7 m/s 88
Initial specific volume (v1) = 0.95 m3/kg
Initial pressure (p1) = 100 kPa = 1 bar
Final velocity (C2) = 5 m/s
Final pressure (p2) = 700 kPa = 7 bar
Final specific volume (v2) = 0.19 m3/kg
u2 – u1 = 90 kJ/kg
Heat liberated by the air (Q) = 58 kJ/s ( - ve)
Required: (a) W (b) d1 / d2
Solution:
(a) SFEE is given by,
m (u1 – u2) + m (p1v1 – p2v2) + m (C12 – C22) / 2 + m g (Z1 – Z2) + Q = W
Assume Z2 – Z1 = 0 if not g
given.
0.5 x (-90) x 103 + 0.5 x (1 x 0.95 x 105 – 7 x 0.19 x 105) + 0.5 (72 – 52) / 2
– 58000 = W
W = - 121994 W
89
∴ Work input to the compressor = 121994 W --- Ans
(b) Mass flow rate is given by,
m = A1 C1 / v1 = A2 C2 / v2
A1 / A2 = C2 v1 / (C1v2)
= 5 x 0.95
0 95 /(7 x 0.19)
0 19) = 3.57
3 57
A1 / A2 = d12 / d22
d1 / d2 = √3.57
√ = 1.8898 --- Ans
Problem 9: In a steam power station, steam flows steadily
through a 0.20 2 diameter pipeline from the boiler to the
turbine. At the boiler end, the steam conditions are found
to be 4 MPa, 400oC, specific enthalpy 3214.6 kJ/kg and
specific
f volume
l 0 0 3 m3/kg.
0.073 /k At the
h turbine
b end,
d theh
conditions are found to be 3.5 MPa, 392oC, specific
enthalpy
py 3202.6 kJ/kg g and specific
p f volume 0.084 m3/kg. g
There is a heat loss of 8.5 kJ/kg from the pipeline.
Calculate the steam flow rate. 90
Given:
Diameter of pipeline (d) = 0.2 m
Pressure of the steam at inlet (p1) = 4 MPa = 40 bar
Initial temperature (T1) = 400o C = 673 K
Initial specific enthalpy (h1) = 3213.6 kJ/kg
Initiall specific
f volume
l ( 1)
(v = 0.073 m3/kg
/k
Pressure of the steam at outlet (p2) = 3.5 MPa = 35 bar
Final temperature
F mp ((T2) = 392
9 o C = 563 K
Final specific enthalpy (h2) = 3202.6 kJ/kg
Initial specific volume (v1) = 0.073 m3/kg
Heat losses from turbine (q) = -8.5
8 5 kJ/kg
Required: Steam flow rate
S l ti n:
Solution:
This is the problem of heat exchanger.

SFEE is given by, m (h1 – h2) + m (C12 – C22) / 2 + m g (Z1 – Z2) + Q = W

91
Assum Z1 – Z2 = 0 if not
Assume n t given.
i n For
F heat
h t exchanger,
x h n W = 0;
Mass flow rate (m) = A1 C1 / v1 = A2 C2 / v2
A1 = A2
∴ C1 = C2v1 / v2 = C2 0.073 / 0.084 = 0.869 C2 --- (1)
SFEE for heat exchanger becomes,
m (h1 – h2) + m (C12 – C22) / 2 + m q = 0
(h1 – h2) + (C12 – C22) / 2 + q = 0
(3213.6 – 3202.6) x 103 + ((0.869C2)2 – C22)/2 -8.5 x 103 = 0
C2 = 142.9 m/s
m = A2 C2 / v2 = (π / 4) d2 C2 / v2
92
=πx 0.22 x 142.9 / (4 x 0.084) = 53.45 kg/s --- Ans
Problem 10: 12 kg of air per min is delivered by a
centrifugal compressor. The inlet and outlet conditions of
air are C1 = 12 m/s,m/s p1 = 1 bar,
bar v1 = 0.5
0 5 m3/kg and
C2 = 90 m/s, p2 = 8 bar, v2 = 0.14 m3/kg. The increase in
enthalpy of air passing through compressor is 150 kJ/kg
andd heat
h t loss
l t the
to th surroundings
di i 700 kJ/min.
is kJ/ i Fi d
Find
motor power required to drive the compressor and ratio of
inlet and outlet p pipe
p diameters. Assume that inlet and
discharge lines are at the same level.
Given:
Mass flow rate of air (m) = 12 kg/min = 0.2 kg/s
Increase in enthalpy (h2 – h1) = 150 kJ/kg
Heat loss to the surroundings (Q) = 700 kJ/min
= 11666.7 J/s (-ve)
Z1 – Z2 =0
Required: Power and Diameter ratio
93
Solution:
SFEE
FEE is g
given by,
y, m ((h1 – h2) + m ((C12 – C22) / 2 + m g ((Z1 – Z2) + Q = W

0.2 x (-150 x 103) + 0.2 x (122 – 902) /2 – 11666.7 = W

W = -42462.3
-42462 3 W
Work in W is Power. ∴ P = -42462.3 W
P
Power required
i d to
t drive
d i the
th compressor
= 42262.3 W --- Ans
M
Mass fl
flow rate (m)
( ) = A1 C1 / v1 = A2 C2 / v2
A1 / A2 = v1 C2 / (v2 C1)
= 0.5 x 90 / (0.14 x 12) = 26.7857
d1 / d2 = √(A1 / A2) = √26.7857 = 5.175 --- Ans

94
Problem 11: At the inlet of a certain nozzle, the enthalpy
of the fluid passing is 3000 kJ/kg and the velocity is
60 m/s.
m/s At the discharge end,
end the enthalpy is 2762 kJ/kg.
kJ/kg
The nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat loss
from it. (a) Find the velocity of fluid at exit (b) If the
i l t area is
inlet i 0.1
0 1 m2 andd the
th specific
ifi volume
l att inlet
i l t is
i
0.187 m3/kg, find the mass flow rate (c) If the specific
volume at the nozzle exit is 0.498 m3/kg, g find the exit
area of the nozzle.
Given:
Nozzle
Initial enthalpy (h1) = 3000 kJ/kg
Initial velocity (C1) = 60 m/s
Heat transfer (Q) =0
Required: (a) C2 (b) m (c) A2
Solution:
95
(a) In nozzle flow, W = 0; Z1 – Z2 = 0 (if not given)
SFEE is given by,
m (h1 – h2) + m (C12 – C22) / 2 + m g (Z1 – Z2) + Q = W
For given nozzle, m (h1 – h2) + m (C12 – C22) / 2 = 0
(h1 – h2) + (C12 – C22) / 2 = 0
C22 = C12 + 2 (h1 – h2)
= 602 + 2 x (3000 – 2762) x 103
C2 = 692.5 m/s --- Ans

(b) A1 = 0.1 m2 ; v1 = 0.187 m3/kg

Mass flow rate (m) = A1 C1 / v1 = A2 C2 / v2
= 0.1 x 60 / 0.187
= 32.08 kg/s --- Ans
96
(c) v2 = 0.498 m3/kg ; m = A2 C2 / v2
32 08 = A2 x 692.5
32.08 692 5 / 0.498
0 498
A2 = 0.02307 m2 --- Ans
Problem 12: 85 kJ of heat is supplied to a system at
constant volume. The system rejects 90 kJ of heat at
constant pressure and 20 kJ of work is done on it. The
system is brought
b h to its originall state by b adiabatic
d b
process. Determine the adiabatic work. Determine also the
values of
f internal energy
gy at all end states if
f initial value is
100 kJ.
Given:
There are three processes.
1 – 2 Æ Constant volume process Æ HS = 85 kJ
2 – 3 Æ Constant pressure process Æ HR = 90 kJ & W = -20
20 kJ
3 – 1 Æ Adiabatic process
Initial internal energy (U1) = 100 kJ 97
Required: W3-1, U2 & U3
Solution:

I law for a process,

I-law process Q = W + Δ U
1 – 2 Æ Constant volume process, W1-2 = 0
Q1-2 = W1-2 + U2 – U1
85 = 0 + U2 – 100
U2 = 85 kJ --- Ans
2 – 3 Æ Constant p
pressure process
p
Q2-3 = W2-3 + U3 – U2
-90
90 = -20
20 + U3 – 185
U3 = 115 kJ --- Ans 98
3 – 1 Æ Adiabatic process, Q3-1 = 0
Q3-1
3 1 = W3-1
3 1 + U 1 – U3

0 = W3-1 + 100 – 115

W3-1 = 15 kJ --- Ans
Problem 13: 2 m3 of hydrogen at a pressure of 1 bar and
20oC is compressed isentropically to 4 bar. The same gas is
expanded to original volume by constant temperature
process and reached initial pressure and temperature by
constant volume heat rejection process.process Determine
(a) pressure, volume and temperature at each end of
operation (b) the heat transferred during the isothermal
process (c) the heat rejected during constant volume
process and (d) change in internal energy during each
process. Assume R = 4.206 kJ/kg kJ/kg-K
K and Cp = 14.25
kJ/kg-K.
99
Given:
There are three processes.
p
1 – 2 Æ Isentropic process
2 – 3 Æ Constant temperature process
3 – 1 Æ Constant volume process
Initial volume of hydrogen (V1) = 2 m 3 = V3
Initial pressure (p1) = 1 bar
I iti l temperature
Initial t mp t (T1) = 20oC = 293 K
Pressure after isentropic compression (p2) = 4 bar
Volume after isothermal expansion
p (V3) = 2 m3
Required: (a) V2, T2, p3
Solution
Solution:
(a) R = Cp – Cv
Cv = 14.25
14 25 – 4.206
4 206 = 10
10.044
044 kJ/k
kJ/kg-K
K
γ = Cp / Cv = 14.25 / 10.044 = 1.419 100
For adiabatic process,
(γ −1) / γ
T2 ⎡ p 2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
T1 ⎢⎣ p1 ⎥⎦
( 1 . 419 − 1 ) / 1 . 419
T2 ⎡4⎤
=⎢ ⎥
293 ⎣1⎦
T2 = 441.2 K --- Ans = T3
1/ γ
V2 ⎡ p1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
V1 ⎣ p2 ⎦

1 / 1.4
V2 ⎡ 1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ V2 = 0.753 m3 --- Ans
2 ⎣4⎦
2 – 3 Æ Constant temperature process, p2 V2 = p3 V3
4 x 0.753
0 753 = p3 x 2
p3 = 1.506 bar --- Ans 101
(b) Heat transferred during isothermal process (Q2-3)
Q2-3
2 3 = p2V2 ln[V3/V2]

= 4 x 105 x 0.753 x ln [2/0.753]

= 294223.4
294223 4 J --- Ans
A
(c) Heat rejected during constant volume process (Q3-1)
Q3-1 = m Cv (T1 – T3)
To find m
p1 V1 = m R T1
1 x 105 x 2 = m x 4206 x 293
m = 0.1623 kg
∴ Q3-1 = 0
0.1623
1623 x 1004
1004.4
4 x (293 – 441.2)
441 2)
= -241586.9 J --- Ans 102
(d) U2 – U1 = -W1-2 = (p2V2 – p1V1) / (1 – γ)
= - (4 x 105 x 0.753
0 753 – 1 x 105 x 2) / (1 – 1.419)
1 419)
= 241527.4 J --- Ans
U3 – U2 = 0
U1 – U3 = Q3-1 = -241586.9 J ---- Ans

Problem 14: 0.5 m3 of air at 30oC and 1 bar is compressed

polytropically to 0.08 m3. Find the final pressure and
temperature and workdone,
workdone change in internal energy and
enthalpy, when the index of compression has the value of
1.5. Take for air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K and Cv = 0.718
kJ/k K
kJ/kg-K.
Given:
Polytropic process
Initial volume (V1) = 0.5 m3
Initial temperature (T1) = 30oC = 303 K
103
Final volume (V2) = 0.08 m3
Index of compression (n) = 1.5
R
Required:
i d p2, T2, W,
W Δ U,
U ΔH
Solution: T2 ⎡ V1 ⎤
(1− n )
=⎢ ⎥
T1 ⎣V2 ⎦
(1−1.5)
T2 ⎡ 0.5 ⎤
=⎢
303 ⎣ 0.08 ⎥⎦

T2 = 757.5 K --- Ans

n
p2 ⎡ V1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
p1 ⎣V2 ⎦

1 .5
p2 ⎡ 0.5 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ p2 = 15.625 bar --- Ans
1 ⎣ 0.08 ⎦
104
 W1-2 = (p2V2 – p1V1) / (1 – n)
= (15.625
(15 625 x 105 x 0.08
0 08 – 1 x 105 x 0.5)
0 5) / (1 – 1.5)
1 5)
= -150000 J ---- Ans
U2 – U1 = m Cv (T2 – T1)
To find m
p1 V1 = m R T1
R = Cp – Cv = 1.005 – 0.718 = 0.387 kJ/kg-K
∴ 1 x 105 = m x 287 x 303
m = 0.5749 kg
g
∴ Δ U = 0.5749 x 0.718 x (757.5 – 303) = 187.6 KJ - Ans
Δ H = H2 – H1 = m Cp (T2 – T1)
= 0.5749 x 1.005 x (757.5 – 303) = 262.6 kJ - Ans
105
Problem 15: 3 kg of an ideal gas is expanded from a
pressure of 8 bar and volume of 1.5 m3 to a pressure of
1 6 bar and volume of 4.5
1.6 4 5 m3. The change in internal
energy is 450 kJ. The specific heat at constant volume for
the gas is 0.7 kJ/kg-K. Determine (a) Gas constant
(b) Index
I d of
f polytropic
l t i expansioni ( ) Workdone
(c) W kd d i
during
polytropic expansion and (e) Initial and final temperatures.

Given:
Gi
Mass of gas (m) = 3 kg
Initial pressure (p1) = 8 bar
Initial Volume (V1) = 1.5 m3
Final pressure (p2) = 1.6 bar
Final volume (V2) = 4.5
4 5 m3
Change in internal energy (U2 – U1) = 450 kJ
Specific heat at constant volume (Cv) = 0.7 kJ/kg-K
Required: (a) R (b) n (c) W (d) T1 & T2
106
Solution:
(a) p1 V1 = m R T1
8 x 105 x 1.5 = 3 x R T1
R T1 = 400000 --- (1)
p2 V2 = m R T2
1.6 x 105 x 4.5 = 3 x R T2
R T2 = 240000 --- (2)
From (1) and (2) R (T2 – T1) = -160000
T2 – T1 = -160000 / R --- ((3))
Also U2 – U1 = - 450 kJ (-ve on expansion)
U2 – U1 = m Cv (T2 – T1)
-450 = 3 x 0.7 x (T2 – T1) 107
Substituting (3), -450 = 3 x 0.7 x -160000 / R
R = 746.6
746 6 J/kg
J/kg-K
K ---- Ans
(b) p1V1n = p2V2n
∴ n = ln
l [p
[ 1/p
/ 2] / ln
l [V2/V1]
= ln [8/1.6] / ln [4.5/1.5] = 1.465 ---- Ans
(c) W = (p2V2 – p1V1) / (1 – n)
= (1.6 x 4.5 x 105 – 8 x 1.5 x 105) / (1 – 1.465)
= 1032258 J ---- Ans

(d) p1 V1 = m R T1
8 x 105 x 1.5 = 3 x 746.6 x T1
T1 = 535.8 K ---- Ans
108
 p2 V2 = m R T2
1.6 x 105 x 4.5 = 3 x 746.6 x T2
T2 = 321.5 K ---- Ans
Problem 16: A g gas mixture obeying
y g pperfect ggas law has
molar mass of 26.7 kg/kmol. The gas mixture is
compressed to a compression ratio of 12 according to the
law pV1.25 = C,C from initial conditions of 0.90 9 bar and
333 K. Assume a mean molar specific heat at a constant
volume of 21.1 kJ/kmolK, find per kg of mass, the
workdone
kd and
d heat
h t flow
fl across the
th cylinder
li d walls.
ll For
F th
the
above gas, determine the value of characteristic gas
constant, molar specific
p heat at constant p pressure and
ratio of specific heats.
Given:
Polytropic process
Index of compression (n) = 1.25
109
Molar mass (M) = 26.7
Compression ratio (p2/p1) = 12
Initial pressure (p1) = 0.9 bar
Initial temperature (T1) = 333 K
Cv(mole) = 21.1 kJ/kmolK
Mass of gas (m) = 1 kg
Required: W, Q, R, Cp(mole) , Cp/Cv
Solution:
Work done during polytropic process is given by,

p 2V 2 − p1V1 m R (T 2 − T1 )
W = =
1− n 1− n
To find R
Universal gas constant (Ru) = 8314 J/kg-K
Characteristic gas constant (R) = Ru/M = 8314/26.7
8314/26 7
= 311.38 J/kg-K - Ans 110
To find T2
(n −1) / n
T2 ⎡ p2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
T1 ⎣ p1 ⎦

= [12](1.25−1) / 1.25
T2
T2 = 547.4 K
333
1 x 313.38 x (547.4 − 333)
W=
1 − 1.25
= - 268754.7 J --- Ans
γ −n
Heat transfer, Q= xW
1− n
1 .4 − 1 .25
= x − 268754 .7
1 − 1 .25
= 100783 J - Ans
Gas constant R
R = Cp – Cv 111
 Cv = Cv(mole) / M
Cp = Cp(mole)
( l ) / M

∴ Cv = 21100 / 26.7 = 790.26 J/kg-K

313 38 = Cp – 790.26
313.38 790 26
Cp = 1101.64 J/kg-K
∴ Cp(mole) = 1101.64 x 26.7 = 29413.8 J/kmolK -- Ans
Specific heat ratio
Cp/Cv = 1101.64/790.26 = 1.394 --- Ans
Problem 17: In an isentropic flow through nozzle, air flows
at the rate of 600 kg/h. At the inlet to the nozzle,
pressure is 2 MPa and temperature is 127oC. The exit
pressure is 0.5 MPa. Initial velocity is 300 m/s.
Determine, (i) Exit velocity of air and (ii) Inlet and exit
area of nozzle. 112
Given:
Nozzle
Flow process
Fluid Æ Air
Mass flow rate of air (m) = 600 kg/h = 600/3600 kg/s
Initiall pressure (p
( 1) = 2 MPa
P = 2 x 106 Pa
P
Initial temperature (T1) = 1270C = 400 K
Final p
pressure (p2) = 0.5 MPa = 0.5 x 106 Pa
Initial velocity (C1) = 300 m/s
Required: (i) C2 (ii) A1 & A2
Solution:
(i)
⎡ C12 ⎤ * ⎡ C 22 ⎤
SFEE
FEE is
i given
i b
by,
*
m ⎢h1 + + g Z 1 ⎥ + Q = m ⎢h2 + + g Z2 ⎥ +W
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
Take Z1 = Z2
Th flow
The fl i isentropic,
is i t i Q=0
For nozzle, W = 0 113
Therefore, SFEE is reduced to,
⎡ C12 ⎤ ⎡ C 22 ⎤
⎢h1 + ⎥ = ⎢h2 + ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦

C 2 = C12 + 2( h1 − h2 )

C 2 = C12 + 2 C p (T1 − T2 )
To find T2 ( γ −1) / γ
T2 ⎡ p 2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
T1 ⎣ p1 ⎦
For air, γ = 1.4, R = 287 J/kg-K & Cp = 1005 J/kg-K
(1 . 4 − 1 ) / 1 . 4
T2 ⎡ 0 .5 ⎤
=⎢ T2 = 269.2 K
400 ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
Therefore,
C 2 = 300 2 + 2 x 1005 (400 − 269.2)
C2 = 593.06 m/s ---- Ans 114
(ii) *
m=
A1C1 A2 C 2
=
v1 v2
T fin
To fi v1 & v2
p1 v1 = R T1
2 x 106 x v1 = 287 x 400
v1 = 0.0574 m3/kg
p2 v2 = R T2
0.5
.5 x 106 x v2 = 287
7 x 269.2
69.
V2 = 0.1545 m3/kg
A1 x300
600 / 3600 = A1 = 3.1889
3 1889 x 10-55 m2 -- Ans
A
0.0574
A2 x593.06
600 / 3600 = A2 = 4.3419
4 3419 x 10-55 m2 -- Ans
0.1545
115
Problem 18: A centrifugal pump delivers 2750 kg of water
per min from initial pressure of 0.8 bar absolute to a final
pressure of 2.8
2 8 bar absolute.
absolute The suction is 2 m below and
the delivery is 5 m above the centre of pump. If the
suction and delivery pipes are of 15 cm and 10 cm
di
diameters
t respectively,
ti l make k calculation
l l ti f power required
for i d
to run the pump.
Given:
Centrifugal pump
Flow process
Mass flow rate of water (m) = 2750 kg/min = 2750/60 kg/s
Initial pressure (p1) = 0.8 bar (abs)
Final pressure (p2) = 2.8 bar (abs)
S ti below
Suction b l th centre
the t of f the
th pump = 2 m
Delivery above the centre of the pump = 5 m
Suction ppipe
p diameter ((d1) = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Delivery pipe diameter (d2) = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Required: W
116
Solution:
SFEE is given by,
* ⎡ C12 ⎤ * ⎡ C 22 ⎤
m ⎢h1 + + g Z 1 ⎥ + Q = m ⎢h2 + + g Z2 ⎥ +W
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦

⎡ * C12 ⎤ * ⎡ C 22 ⎤
m ⎢u1 + p1v1 + + g Z 1 ⎥ + Q = m ⎢u 2 + p 2 v 2 + + g Z2 ⎥ +W
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦

Consider datum from suction (1), Z1 = 0 & Z2 = 2 + 5 = 7 m

Generally for any liquid, u1 = u2, v1 = v2 = v and Q = 0
117
Therefore, SFEE is reduced to,

* ⎡ C12 ⎤ *⎡ C 22 ⎤
m ⎢ p1v + + g Z1 ⎥ = m⎢ p 2 v + + g Z2 ⎥ +W
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
T find
To fi d C1 and
d C2
* A1C1 A2 C 2
m= =
v1 v2
For water ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and v = 1/ρ = 1/1000 m3/kg
π π
A1 = d =
1
2
x 0.15 2
4 4
π π
A2 = d = 2
2 x 0.12
4 4
π / 4 x 0.15 2 C1 C1 = 2.593 m/s
2750 / 60 =
1 / 1000 118
 π / 4 x 0.12 C 2
2750 / 60 =
1 / 1000

C2 = 5.835 m/s

Therefore,
⎡ 2.593 2 ⎤
(2750 / 60) ⎢0.8 x 10 x (1 / 1000) +
5
+ 9.81 x 0⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ 5.835 2 ⎤
= (2750 / 60) ⎢2.8 x 10 x (1 / 1000) +
5
+ (9.81 x 7)⎥ + W
⎣ 2 ⎦
W = 12833 W --- Ans

119
Thank You !

120