Asian Journal of Advances in Research

4(1): 573-581, 2021

FLUORIDE TOXICITY IN SOIL AND PLANTS: AN

OVERVIEW

ADITI SAHARIYA1, CHELLAPILLA BHARADWAJ2, IWUALA EMMANUEL3

AND AFROZ ALAM1*
1
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan-304022, India.
2
Pulse Research Laboratory, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi,
110 012, India.
3
Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, Federal University, Oye Ekiti, Nigeria.

AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Authors AS and AA have conceptualized the
topic. Author AS collected the all available literatures and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Authors CB
and IE critically analyzed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Received: 10 April 2021

Accepted: 14 June 2021
Published: 17 June 2021 Review Article

ABSTRACT

Fluoride, if present in higher concentration for an extended period of time causes diverse toxic effects not only
in plants and soil, but also in human beings. These effects on vegetation are mostly through the fluoride
contaminated soil, gases, water as well as dust that alter the morphology and physiology of plants. The damages
caused by Fluoride in plants may be chronic or acute and their rigidity is dependent on the duration of the
fluoride exposure and concentration. Fluoride toxicity in plants results into the continuous accumulation of
fluoride into their subcellular structures which then changes towards biochemical activity. Fluoride toxicity
negatively influences growth, germination, photosynthesis, mineral nutrition, respiration, reproduction and
activity of cellular enzymes. Further this toxicity is well known to prohibit the action of anti-oxidative enzyme
systems such as interfere with cell signaling and superoxide dismutase. Fluoride is also noted to obstruct
calcium movement which is crucial for germination. Hence, this review highlights the evidences of fluoride
toxicity in soil and its damaging effects on the morphology and physiology of the plants.

Keywords: Fluoride; toxicity; ROS; sensitivity; plant stress.

1. INTRODUCTION to increased generation of reactive oxygen species

(ROS) such as superoxide radicals that can result in
Fluoride is potent abiotic atmospheric contaminants. deactivation of enzymes; DNA strands breakage and
Fluoride toxicity is a reason of concern in many destruct membrane lipids [5-8].
nations mainly where it is present in immoderate
amounts in the hydrological areas [1, 2]. Furthermore, Fluoride toxicity in plants can appear due to
fluoride deposition in crops that are irrigated with immoderate fluoride uptake from diverse native or
fluoride-adulterated water is a major problem, manmade sources. Fluoride causes phytotoxic effects
especially because of the decline in the rate of in many plants [9]. Plants are susceptible to fluoride
photosynthesis and obstructs growth and development accumulation and a little accumulation of fluoride can
in numerous plant varieties [3, 4]. Fluoride risk leads harm the process of their development. Fluoride has
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected];

 Sahariya et al.; AJOAIR, 4(1): 573-581, 2021

been identified as a vigorous metabolic barrier [10] 3. EFFECTS ON SOIL

and has long been recognized as potent phytotoxic of
familiar air pollutants, the phytotoxicity depends upon In soil, most of the fluorine occurs inside the minerals
its atmospheric concentration [11,12]. Only or oxy-hydroxides. About 90 percent of the soil native
peroxyacetyl nitrate, a component of photochemical fluoride content of soil molecules is not penetrable
smog, can equal this immoderate phytotoxicity [13]. and firmly bound to soil molecules [33, 34]. Mostly
Fluoride causes phytotoxic effects mainly due to its soil fluorides related to clay minerals and micas. The
tendency to pileup in plants [14] usually it is fluoride accumulation in soils varies from 20 to 1,000
accumulated in the foliage. Gaseous fluorides too that µg g-1 in regions without fluoride deposits or the
penetrate between the stomata are absorbed in a phosphate accumulation because the natural soil
systematic way by the leaves [15]. The gaseous forms generally has low fluoride concentration [35, 36].
of fluoride, such as silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) or Presence of high levels of the fluoride may also take
hydrogen fluorides (HFs) have the highest toxicity place at coal-fired power plants, phosphate fertilizers,
among all pollutants used in agriculture [16,17]. fluoride releasing industries, and in the proximity of
When fluoride is present inside the leaf, a small hazardous waste locations [32]. In soil, fluoride is
amount of fluoride is carried out of the organ by the related to its portability in soil and also dependent on
conducting process. the soil adsorption capability, which differs with soil
salinity, pH and the types of absorbents present [37].
2. EXISTENCE OF FLUORIDE The pH of soil and natural carbon content is basically
important for holding of fluoride inside soils. Fluoride
Fluoride is the most abundant element on the is principally coordinated with calcium or aluminum
earth and it is widely dispersed. Fluorine is a pale and clay loam soil; silt soil has more fluoride content
yellow color gas. At standard temperature and than sandy soils [29]. Fluoride forms better bond with
pressure it has an atomic weight of 18.9984 and an Ca, Al, Fe, and varying fluoride is held by soil
atomic number of 9 [18]. In the periodic table, constituents carrying these elements, including
Fluorine is arranged as a halogen present in the calcium, magnesium and aluminum. Components that
Group VII A. In the halide series fluorine is the form Al and Fe compounds obstruct the mineral
most electronegative anion [19,20] and chemical surfaces [32]. At low pH, complexes between F and
and biochemical properties of fluorine are unique Al are found in soil compounds and called ‘free
because of its reactivity and small size. Though fluoride’. It has also been reported that in some soil
this element is highly toxic yet the mechanisms types, mainly with high calcium content have high
of fluorine cell signaling is still unknown tendency of fixing fluoride [38].
[21,22].
4. EFFECTS ON PLANTS
Fluorine is found everywhere in the atmosphere and
an extremely rich element in the earth crust On a wide variety of plants, numerous examinations
approximately 0.32 g kg-1 [23]. The allocation of were observed about the effects of Fluoride in the
fluoride in water and soil is changeable depending form hydrogen fluoride. Campbell [24] prepared a
upon position and place [24]. Fluoride concentration record of the ancient reports regarding the outcomes
in soil vary from ten to thousands of parts per of fluoride on plants and other living beings. Thomas
million (ppm) [25,26] while in natural water [39,40] reviewed the damages of gaseous forms of
origin, the concentrations range from l25 μM to fluoride on various plants. Daines et al. [21]
100 mM (<0.5 to >2,000 ppm; 1 ppm > 55 μM) epitomized the effects of fluorine compounds on
[27,28]. Groundwater has highest fluoride plants. Fluoride is particularly toxic for the foliage
concentrations as compared to other anions [29,30]. and its concentration can continue over a long period
Fluoride toxicity in terrestrial plants has been of time [41]. Metabolic processes like photosynthesis
well determined and studied using experimental and respiration are strongly affected by fluoride.
methods such as greenhouse, controlled field plot Beside these the transpiration also affected through
experiments, etc. [31]. Fluoride has the ability to the movement of fluoride stream from roots to the the
activate abnormal morphological symptoms like stomata, where it is accumulated in leaf margins
marginal necrosis, chlorosis. Sensitivity towards [42,43]. Damage of fluorine in broadleaf plants causes
fluoride is distinct in various varieties and species of necrosis of leaf tip and margins while in conifer
plants [32]. In general, fluoride inhibits the needles it basically affects the leaf base [40,44]. Salt
phosphorylation of enzyme activities, other toxicity or drought stress can have identical signs.
metabolic processes, photosynthetic pigments Some plants carrying higher concentrations of
synthesis and phosphor-proteins in cellular fluoride and do not show symptoms of toxicity but
membranes [33,34]. most plants exhibit symptoms of toxicity at very

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smaller concentration [45]. Most plants are subtle to Fluoride frequently hinders enzymes that need
fluoride as it is phytotoxic because it changes the cofactors such as Mg2+, Mn2+ and Ca2+ ions [48].
sequence and path of the metabolic routes. Hence, it Fluoride sensitivity appears to be higher in seeds and
adversely affects growth, germination, respiration, seedlings than other parts of plants [45]. A large
reproduction, assimilation of proteins and amino amount of deposition of fluorides in plants produce
acids, yield of crops and photosynthesis [46,47]. leaf damage, fruits damage, and yield (Figs.1 & 2).

Fig. 1. Fluorine exposure causes leaf spots [48] (Neil Bell, 2009; adopted from Kumar et al. [48])

Fig. 2. Changes morphological and physiological attributes due fluoride toxicity

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4.1 Effects on Anabolic Process cause for fluoride-stimulated respiration is less

evident. When plants are exposed to fluoride many
Fluorides influence the rate of photosynthesis species of plants demonstrate a significant use of the
primarily by bringing down chlorophyll composition pentose phosphate pathways [61]. In fluoride
or by degeneration of the chloroplasts, especially by damaged tissues, the activities of cytochromes
obstruction of the Hill reaction [49,50]. The oxidase, peroxidase, catalase and glucose-6-phosphate
chloroplasts are the primary acquirer of fluoride. dehydrogenase were elevated [62].
Many reports have underlined that fluorides give rise
to dangerous effects on photosynthetic pigments such 4.3 Effects on Seed Germination and Seedling
as anthocyanin, chlorophylls-a, b and carotenoids Growth
[51]. Fluoride was seen to decrease the accessibility
of Fe2+ ions which are important for chlorophyll Phytin is fragmented by the enzyme phytase during
production [43]. Additionally, fluoride stimulated germination to provide mineral phosphate to the
interference in the electron transport system, young seedlings [63]. Fluoride has been shown to
specifically at the photosystem II. It has also been delay germination and seedling root growth by
investigated that oxygen is constantly built throughout inhibiting the dephosphorylation of phytin
the photolysis of water [52]. By the exchange of components in tissues by suppressing phytase
fluoride with Cl- ions of the photosystem II, it enzymes. Phytin produces inorganic phosphates
obstructs the photo-oxidation of water and results in which are the sources of orthophosphates that are
the production of new free radicals in the proteins, important for the metabolism of RNA during the
which is inefficient in balancing the system of germination process [64, 65]. One of the elements that
photolysis [53]. It has been investigated that the can hinder the growth rate of fluoride- treated
inhibited synthesis may be the outcome of the loss of seedlings is a limited amount of phytin derived
granulation of the chloroplasts, subcellular orthophosphate. The amount of phytin derived
organization and short stomatal conductance linked to orthophosphates possibly the reason which obstructs
a less CO2 uptake [54,55]. Moreover, in the the germination rate of fluoride-treated seedlings [15,
chloroplasts, Fluorides also appear to influence the 66].
process of sucrose synthase, RUBISCO (ribulose 1, 5-
bisphosphate carboxylase) and the enzymes related 4.4 Uptake and Accumulation of Fluoride by
with CO2 fixation. Its deposition was shown to be best Plants
in the roots with gradual lower levels in the shoots,
leaves and seeds [45, 56]. Significant constant deposition of fluoride into the
subcellular parts of the plants causes toxic responses
4.2 Effects on Catabolic Process in the plants [67, 68]. Fluoride initially deposited in
leaves and moves through the water and soil into the
Cellular respiration gives the energy for production of roots by a passive diffusion system [50, 69]. Though,
new biomass, ion uptake transfer of photosynthates, researchers examine that the uptake of fluorides from
absorption of components, including protein the atmospheric air is more important than from the
movement, nitrogen as well as prevention of ion soil [70]. Accordingly, fluoride is transferred through
gradients [11, 57]. Low accumulation related to low xylem tissues through the symplastic and apoplastic
fluoride is accustomed to prompt O2 intake, whereas pathways into the shoots. Fluoride is also transferred
exposure at higher concentration or for longer time by biological lamina through non-ionic dispersion of
obstructs respiration [58]. In comparison, two studies hydrogen fluoride (HF) [71, 72]. The minute neutral
investigated that the respiratory process was rather particles of HF go across the cell membranes seven
susceptible to fluoride and in others it was restricted times quicker than the fluoride ion. Moreover, at the
[35]. The concentration of fluoride is dependent on present time, the exact system of fluoride absorption
the tissue of the plant, its age, time of accumulation in into the cells has not been fully investigated [25, 73].
tissues, location and fluoride accumulation in the The toxicant of fluoride in the distinct plant portions
distinct parts of plants [41]. The shift from glycolysis differ and depend upon its movement from the soil to
to the pentose phosphate channel which occurs over a the roots [11].
lengthy time span of tissue may show a link between
inhibition and tissue span or through high 4.5 Effect of Fluoride Toxicity on Mineral
susceptibility of few glycolytic enzymes to fluoride Nutrition
[14, 59]. Fluorides obstruct tissue respiration by the
obstruction of respiratory enzyme activities like Different levels of phosphorus, nitrogen and calcium
peroxidase, ascorbic acid, malate dehydrogenase and nutrition are well known to affect the sensitivity of the
polyphenol oxidase succinate [40, 60]. However, the plants variously [74]. Average level of phosphorus,

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nitrogen and calcium promote absorption and transfer Zhu et al. [79] experimentally studied that silicon
of fluorine in adequate amounts which give rise to reduce salt stress effect and enhance antioxidant
notable leaf damage. Less phosphorus appears to have enzyme activities in cucumber leaves. Addition of
the minimal restraint effect [38, 70]. Calcium has a silicon in salt stress plant leads to enhance antioxidant
propensity to bring fluorine in the structure of enzymatic activity and reduce LPO and H2O2
insoluble elements inside or through the roots causing concentration. An increase in the antioxidant enzyme
decrease in the damage to the plant foliage. Signs of concluded that silicon may be associated with
critical fluorine toxicity on the leaves were always metabolic activity in salt stress cucumber. Kanchan et
related with the excessive fluorine foliage content al. [80] also highlighted the utility of silicon
[21]. application in the mitigation of fluoride present in arid
soils.
4.6 Effects on Growth of Vascular Plants
Collivignarelli [81] reported the mitigation of fluoride
Decrease plant growth rate and vigor indicate in ground water by the use of palm residues.
accumulation of fluorides. Portions of green stems as Chaudhary et al. [82] highlighted the importance of
well as leaves can accumulate greater concentrations microbes in the remediation of fluoride toxicity.
of fluoride from the environment apart from bare Recently GAO et al. [83] had done experiment related
portions because of large surface area and abundant to the treatment of toxic concentration of fluoride in
stomata. Fluoride accumulated in the margins of the shallow ground water bodies and their findings are
dicotyledonous leaves and in the tips of promising.
monocotyledonous leaves where it causes chlorosis or
necrosis [46,75]. Depletion in root and shoot growth Another approach would depend on the identification
is associated with subjection to airborne fluorides; of tolerant relatives of major crops and their
these effects on growth appear to lead to noticeable incorporation in the breeding programmes to develop
damage in the plant foliage [4,72]. Hydrogen fluoride the desired crop varieties.
fumigation at anthesis and booting decreases the
irrigation of crops because of lesser and smaller 6. CONCLUSION
spikes. In the kernel of plants, fluoride accumulation
hardly expands because the fumigation shows that the Fluoride toxicity in soil and plants is a global issue
fluorides neither transfer from the leaves to the mature due to its negative impacts on the soil, plants and
seeds [74-76]. It is also mentioned that hydrogen human beings also. Many researches have shown
fluoride affects fruiting and leaf injury separately. these negative impacts on soil and plants, though the
Subjection of crops to fluoride through anthesis unavoidable uptake of soil bound fluorides and its
intensely decreases yield, expressing an unfavorable gaseous form by roots and leaves, respectively. The
effect on the fertilization procedure [76]. toxicity of fluoride is not only toxic to the higher
plants but also it negatively interacts with the soil
5. STRATEGIES TO COMBAT THE micro-flora and hence damaging the micro and macro
FLUORIDE TOXICITY environment in many parts of the world. To combat
with this one has to understand the molecular,
Ahmad et al. [77] experimentally studied that silicon physiological and biochemical basis of agricultural
addition reduce NaCl toxicity in Mung bean through fluoride tolerance, consequently, there is a desperate
the changes in physio-biochemical and antioxidant need of more research on the effects of fluoride
enzymes. Mung bean treated with different NaCl toxicity stress on various plants to find out few
concentration show decrease in length and dry weight tolerant species and reclamation programmes that can
of root and shoot. Silicon addition to salt stress plant be helpful in making future strategies. In this review
leads to decrease salt effect on growth and biomass. an overview has been presented which would be
Silicon increases antioxidant enzymes in NaCl helpful for the researchers that are engage in this
stressed plant. particular aspect.

Dresler et al. [78] experimentally studied silicon ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

effect on maize growth under the stress of cadmium.
Cadmium stressed plant show depressed plant growth The author would like to express her gratitude to the
whereas silicon addition leads to reduce the Prof. Ina Shastri, Vice Chancellor, Banasthali
accumulation of cadmium in maize roots. Hence Vidyapith, Rajasthan for her support and
silicon prevents the uptake of cadmium and encouragement. We also thank DST for providing
shows the positive influence on growth of maize networking support through the FIST program at the
seedlings. Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,

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