NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING (18ME641)

1. INTRODUCTION
In the early stage of mankind, tools were made of stone for the item being made. When iron
tools were invented, desirable metals and more sophisticated articles could be produced. In
twentieth century products were made from the most durable and consequently, the most
unmachinable materials. In an effort to meet the manufacturing challenges created by these
materials, tools have now evolved to include materials such as alloy steel, carbide, diamond and
ceramics. The conventional manufacturing processing use today for material
removal primarily rely on electric motors and hard tool materials to perform tasks such as
sawing, drilling and broaching.

Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups:

a) Primary manufacturing processes : Provide basic shape and size
b) Secondary manufacturing processes : Provide final shape and size with tighter control on
dimension, surface characteristics

Material removal processes once again can be divided into two groups
1. Conventional Machining Processes
2. Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes or non-conventional Manufacturing processes

Conventional Machining Processes mostly remove material in the form of chips by applying
forces on the work material with a wedge shaped cutting tool that is harder than the work
material under machining condition.

The major characteristics of conventional machining are:

• Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation
• Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces – energy domain can be
classified as mechanical
• Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under machining
conditions

Conventional forming operations are performed with the energy from electric
motors, hydraulics and gravity. Likewise, material joining is conventionally accomplished with
thermal energy sources such as burning gases and electric arcs. In contrast, non-traditional
manufacturing processes harness energy sources considered unconventional by yesterday’s
standards. Material removal can now accomplished with electrochemical reaction, high
temperature plasmas and high-velocity jets of liquids and abrasives. Materials that in the past
have been extremely difficult to form, are now formed with magnetic fields, explosives and the
shock waves from powerful electric sparks. Material joining capabilities have been expanded
with the use of high frequency sound waves and beams of electrons and coherent light.

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With the development of technology, more and more challenging problems are faced by the
scientists and technologists in the field of manufacturing. The difficulty in adapting the
traditional manufacturing processes can be attributed mainly to the following basic sources:

(i) New materials with low machinability.

(ii) Dimensional and accuracy requirements
(iii) A higher production rate and economy.

The many new materials and alloys that have been developed for specific uses possess a very
low machinability. Producing complicated geometries in such materials becomes extremely
difficult with the usual methods. Also, sometimes the combination of the material properties and
the job dimensions is such that the use of the traditional processes becomes impossible.

Examples of these types of jobs are machining a complicated turbine blade made of super
alloys, and producing holes and slots (both through and blind) in materials such as glass and
semiconductors. At times, the job becomes difficult because of the dimensional complications.
So, drilling a noncircular hole or a micro hole becomes problematic (and sometimes
impossible) if the traditional processes are used. Apart from the situations cited, higher
production rate and economic requirements may demand the use of non-traditional (or
unconventional) machining processes.

To tackle such difficult jobs, two approaches are possible, viz

(i) A modification of the traditional processes (eg: hot machining) and
(ii) The development of new processes.

1.1 DEFINITION FOR NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING

(i) A machining process is called non-traditional, if its material removal mechanism

is basically different than those in the traditional processes, i.e. a different form of
energy (other than the excessive forces exercised by a tool, which is in physical
contact with the work piece) is applied to remove the excess material from the
work surface, or to separate the work piece in to smaller parts.

(ii) Non-traditional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes that

remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical,
thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do
not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing
processes.

Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining
processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling. Nontraditional machining processes,

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also called advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining
processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined below.
Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining

•When the work piece is too flexible or slender

• When the shape of the part is too complex

Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra
required machining conditions. When these processes are employed properly, they offer many
advantages over non-traditional machining processes. The common non-traditional machining
processes are described in this section.

1.2 NEED FOR NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

The strength of steel alloys has increased five folds due to continuous R and D effort. In
aero-space requirement of High strength at elevated temperature with light weight led to
development and use of hard titanium alloys, nimonic alloys, and other HSTR alloys. The
ultimate tensile strength has been improved by as much as 20 times. Development of cutting
tools which has hardness of 80 to 85 HRC which cannot be machined economically in
conventional methods led to development of non–traditional machining methods.

1. Technologically advanced industries like aerospace, nuclear power, wafer fabrication,

automobiles has ever increasing use of High strength temperature resistant (HSTR) alloys
(having high strength to weight ratio)and other difficult to machine materials like
titanium, SST, nimonics, tungsten, molybdenum, columbium, ceramics and
semiconductors. It is no longer possible to use conventional process to machine these
alloys.
2. Production and processing parts of complicated shapes (in HSTR and other hard to
machine alloys) is difficult , time consuming an un economical by conventional methods
of machining
3. Innovative geometric design of products and components made of new exotic materials
with desired tolerance, surface finish cannot be produced economically by conventional
machining.
4. The following examples are provided where NTM processes are preferred over the
conventional machining process:

 Intricate shaped blind hole – e.g. square hole of 15 mm x 15 mm with a depth

of 30 mm with a tolerance of 100 microns.

 Difficult to machine material – e.g. Ti-alloys or carbides, Ceramics,

composites, HSTR alloys, etc.,

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 Low Stress Grinding – Electrochemical Grinding is preferred as compared to

conventional grinding.

 Deep hole with small hole diameter – e.g. φ 1.5 mm hole with l/d = 20

 NTM process is useful in machining of composite material.

1.3 NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING (NTM) PROCESSES CHARACTERISTICS

Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes are characterized as follows:

1. Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip formation may take
place.
For example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case of
Electrochemical machining material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution
at atomic level.

2. In NTM, there may not be a physical tool present.

For example in laser jet machining, machining is carried out by laser beam.
However in Electrochemical Machining there is a physical tool that
is very much required for machining.

3. In NTM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material.
For example, in EDM, copper is used as the tool material to machine hardened steels.

4. Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to provide material
removal. They use different energy domains to provide machining.
For example, in USM, AJM, WJM mechanical energy is used to machine material.

1.4 COMPARISON/DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND NON

CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

Sl. No. Conventional Process Non-Conventional Process

The cutting tool and work piece are
There is no physical contact between the
always in physical contact with relative
1. tool and work piece, In some non-
motion with each other, which results in
traditional process tool wear exists
friction and tool wear
NTM can machine difficult to cut and hard
Material removal rate is limited by to cut materials like titanium, ceramics,
2.
mechanical properties of work material. nimonics, SST, composites,
semiconducting materials.

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Relative motion between the tool and

work is typically rotary or
reciprocating. Thus the shape of work is Many NTM are capable of producing
3.
limited to circular or flat shapes. In complex 3D shapes and cavities
spite of CNC systems, production of
3Dsurfaces is still a difficult task
Machining of small cavities, slits and
Machining of small cavities , slits, blind Production of non-circular, micro sized,
4.
holes or through holes are difficult large aspect ratio, shall entry angle holes
are easy using NTM
Non-traditional processes requires
Use relative simple and inexpensive
expensive tools and equipment as well as
5. machinery and readily available cutting
skilled labour, which increase the
tools
production cost significantly
Capital cost and maintenance cost is
6. Capital cost and maintenance cost is high
low
Traditional processes are well
Mechanics of Material removal of Some of
7. established and physics of process is
NTM process are still under research
well understood
Most NTM uses energy in direct form For
Conventional process mostly uses example : laser, Electron beam in its direct
8.
mechanical energy forms are used in LBM and EBM
respectively
Surface finish and tolerances are limited High surface finish(up to 0.1micron) and
9.
by machining inaccuracies tolerances (25Microns)can be achieved
10. High metal removal rate Low material removal rate

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF NTM PROCESSES

Classification along with the principle of working (type of energy used for material
removal) is described below.

(i) Use of Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is used for removing material from work piece. In this process,
cutting tool with sharp edge is not used but material is removed by the abrasive action
of high velocity of stream of hard, tiny abrasive particles. The particles are kept
vibrating with very high velocity and ultra high frequency to remove the material.

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(ii) Electrical Energy

In this category of non-traditional machining electrical energy is used in the form of

electrochemical energy or electro-heat energy to erode the material or to melt and
vaporized it respectively. Electrochemical machining, electroplating or electro
discharge machining are the examples work on this principle.

(iii) Use of Thermal Energy

According to this principle heat is generated by electrical energy. The generated

thermal energy is focused to a very small portion of work piece. This heat is utilized in
melting and evaporating of metal. The example based o this principle is electric
discharge machining.

(iv) Use of Chemical Energy

According to this principle of working chemicals are used to erode material from the
work piece. Selection of a chemical depends upon the work piece material. Example of
this type of machining is electrochemical machining. The dame principle can also be
applied in reversed way in the process of electrochemical plating.

There can be one more way of classification of the non-conventional machining processes
which is mechanisms of metal removal.

(i) Abrasion and Shear

When small and hard metallic particles are made vibrating against the work piece to be
machined, the material is removed by shear action and abrasion. This phenomenon
generally takes place in case of ultrasonic machining.

(ii) Chemical Ablation and Ionic Dissolution

This is the dissolution of work piece material into electrolyte solution (chemical) which
takes place atom by atom. This happens in case electrochemical machining.

(iii) Vaporization by Spark Erosion

Concentrated heat is focused at a point of the work piece by electric spark which melts
and evaporates the work piece material like electric discharge machining and LBM.

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NTM processes can be divided into four groups based upon the material removal
mechanism:

1. Chemical-Chemical reaction between a liquid reagent and the work piece results in etching.
2. Electrochemical- An electrolytic reaction at the work piece surface is responsible material
removal.
3. Mechanical- High velocity abrasives or liquids remove material.
4. Thermal- High temperatures in localized regions evaporate materials.

Classification of NTM processes is carried out depending on the nature of energy used for
material removal. The broad classification is given as follows:

•Mechanical Processes

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Water Jet Machining (WJM)

•Electrochemical Processes

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)

•Electro-Thermal Processes

Electro-discharge machining (EDM)

Laser Jet Machining (LJM)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

•Chemical Processes

Chemical Milling (CHM)

Photochemical Milling (PCM)

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Fig. 1 Schematic representation of various metal cutting operations

Table-1 Classification of unconventional machining processes

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1.6 SELECTION OF NTM PROCESSES:

The correct selection of the non-traditional machining methods must be based on the
following aspects.

i) Physical parameters of the process

ii) Shape to be machined
iii) Process capability
iv) Economics of the processes

(i) Physical parameter of the process:

The physical parameters of the different NTM are given in the Table 1.2 which indicates that
PAM and ECM require high power for fast machining. EBM and LBM require high voltages and
require careful handling of equipment. EDM and USM require medium power. EBM can be used
in vacuum and PAM uses oxygen and hydrogen gas. And also comparative study of the effect of
metal removal rate on the power consumed by various non-conventional machining processes
shown in fig. 1.2. It is found that some of the processes (e.g. EBM, ECM) above the mean power
consumption line consume a greater amount of power than the processes (e.g. EDM, PAM,
ECG) below the mean power consumption line. Thus, the capital cost involved in the processes
(EBM, ECM etc.) lying above the mean line is high whereas for the processes below that line
(e.g., EDM, PAM, MCG) is comparatively low.

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(ii) Shapes cutting capability

The different shapes can be machined by NTM. The capability of different processes can be
analyzed on the basis of various machining operation point of view such as micro-drilling,
drilling, cavity sinking, pocketing (shallow and deep), contouring a surface, through cutting
(shallow and deep) etc. EBM and LBM are used for micro drilling and cutting. USM and EDM
are useful for cavity sinking and standard hole drilling. ECM is useful for fine hole drilling and
contour machining. PAM can be used for cutting and AJM is useful for shallow pocketing.

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(iii) Process capability

The process capability of NTM is given in EDM which achieves higher accuracy has the lowest
specific power requirement. ECM can machine faster and has a low thermal surface damage
depth. USM and AJM have very material removal rates combined with high tool wear and are
used nonmetal cutting. LBM and EBM are, due to their high penetration depth can be used for
micro drilling, sheet cutting and welding.CHM is used for manufacture of PCM and other
shallow components.

(a) Applicability to materials

Materials applications of the various machining methods are summarized in the table 1.4
and table 1.5. For the machining of electrically non-conducting materials, both ECM and EDM
are unsuitable, whereas the mechanical methods can achieve the desired results.

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USM is suitable for machining of refractory type of material while AJM are for super alloys and
refractory materials.

(b) Machining characteristics

The machining characteristics of different non-conventional processes can be analyzed with

respect to:
(i) Metal removal rate
(ii) Tolerance maintained
(iii) Surface finish obtained
(iv) Depth of surface damage
(v) Power required for machining

The process capabilities of non-conventional manufacturing processes have been

compared in table 1.6. The metal removal rates by ECM and PAM are respectively one-fourth
and 1.25 times that of conventional whereas others are only small fractions of it. Power
requirement of ECM and PAM is also very high when compared with other non-conventional
machining processes.

This involves higher capital cost for those processes. ECM has very low tool wear rate
but it has certain fairly serious problems regarding the contamination of the electrolyte used and
the corrosion of machine parts. The surface finish and tolerance obtained by various processes
except PAM is satisfactory.

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(iv) Economics of the processes

The economics of the various processes are analyzed on the basis of following factors and given
in Table 1.7.

(a) Capital cost

(b) Tooling cost
(c) Consumed power cost
(d) Metal removal rate efficiency
(e)Tool wear.

The capital cost of ECM is very high when compared with traditional mechanical contour
grinding and other non-conventional machining processes whereas capital costs for AJM and
PAM are comparatively low. EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes.
Power consumption is very low for PAM and LBM processes whereas it is greater in case of
ECM. The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than for other processes. In
conclusion, the suitability of application of any of the processes is dependent upon various
factors and must be considered all or some of them before applying no conventional processes.

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1.7 ADVANTAGES:
 Difficult to machine the materials in conventional machining, can be machined with
non-conventional process.
 It can machine any complex shape.
 Economical for mass production for long duration.
 High strength, high hardness and heat resisting materials can be machined with
non-conventional process.
 It provides high accuracy and surface finish.
 Material is removed without mechanical contact with the work piece
(ECM,EDM,LBM,CHM).
 Material removal rate is independent of work piece hardness (ECM,LBM,EDM)
 Cutting forces are independent of work piece hardness.(ECM,LBM,EDM,CHM)
 Tool material need not be harder than the work piece material.(ECM,LBM,EDM,CHM,USM)
 Tool wear is not a problem (ECM,LBM,CHM)
 Ability to machine any material. (LBM)
 Burr-free machining (ECM,EDM,CHM)
 Uniform material removal over the entire area simultaneously.(ECM,CHM)

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 No physical tool is used hence, no tool wear occur.

 They do not generate chips or generate microscopic chips.
 These are quieter in operation.
 It can be easily automated.

(i) Disadvantages:
 High initial or setup cost.
 High skilled labor is required.
 Lower metal removal rate.
 More power required for machining.
 It is not economical for bulk production.

1.8 APPLICATIONS OF NTM

1. USM
 Hard, brittle work materials such as ceramics, glass, and carbides, precious stones, and
hardened steels.
 Also successful on certain metals, such as stainless steel and titanium
 Shapes include non-round holes, holes along a curved axis.

2. AJM
 Normally used as a finishing process rather than cutting process
 Applications: deburring, trimming and cleaning, and polishing
 Work materials: thin flat stock of hard, brittle materials (e.g., glass, silicon, mica,
ceramics)
3. WJM
 Used in mining, aerospace.
 Cutting thin details in stone, glass and metals.
 Drilling of titanium materials.

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4. ECM
 Used in tool & die making industries, automotive, aerospace, power generation, oil &
gas industries.
 Facing & turning complex 3D surfaces, deburring, grinding, honing, trepanning,
broaching, multiple hole drilling etc.
5. LBM
 LBM is used to perform precision micro-machining on all materials such as steel,
ceramic, glass, diamond, graphite etc.
 It is used for cutting, drilling, marking, scribing etc.
6. PAM
 Manufacturers of transportation and agricultural equipment, aircraft components etc.
 Used in sawing, cutting, drilling, machining, and punching.
 Also used in the heating, ventilating, air conditioning industries to cut complex work.

7. EBM
 EBM is more popular in industries like aerospace, insulation, food processing, chemical,
clothing, etc.
 It is very useful in those cases where number of holes (simple as well as complex shaped)
required in a work piece may range from hundreds to thousands (perforation of sheets,
etc).
 This Process is also used for drilling thousands of holes (diameter < 1.00 mm) in very
thin plates used for turbine engine combustion domes.

8. EDM
 Useful in machining of small holes, orifices, slots in diesel fuel injection nozzles,
airbrake valves and aircraft engines etc.
 Blind cavities and narrow slots in dies, minimum diameter hole can be produced.
 Mold making

9. Chemical Machining
 Aviation Industries
 Printed Circuit Boards
 Jewellery
 Turbine Engines
 Pressure Vessel Bulkheads
 Chemical Milling => Production Of Blind Holes, Pockets

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Questions
1. What is non-traditional machining/ unconventional machining/ modern machining technique. How
are they classified.
2. Differentiate between conventional (traditional) and unconventional (non-traditional) or modern
machining processes. June/July 2016, June/July 2014, June/July 2013, Dec 2011
3. What are the applications of non-traditional machining methods.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of non-traditional machining.
5. Classify non-traditional machining processes based on nature of energy employed in machining.
6. Write a note on the source of energy harnessed and mechanism of material removal in non-
traditional machining. June/July 2011
7. Explain the need for development of non-traditional machining. June/July 2011
8. Classify the modern machining processes. Dec 2011)
9. Explain the principle of modern machining process.
10.What are the factors to be considered while selecting a process? Dec 2011
11.Explain the need to develop modern machining processes. Dec 2012
12.Explain parameter to select to employ the new machining methods. Dec 2012
13.Give the broad classification of non-traditional machining processes. Dec 2012)
14.Justify the need of unconventional manufacturing process in today’s industries. June/July 2013
15.What are the basic factors upon which the unconventional manufacturing processes are classified?
Explain. June/July 2013
16.Explain how the non-traditional machining processes are classified. June/July 2014
17.List the unconventional machining processes under mechanical energy thermal and chemical
energy category. Dec 2014, Jan2015
18. Differentiate between conventional (traditional) and non-traditional machining processes with
examples. Dec 2014,Jan 2015)
19.Make a comparison between traditional and non-traditional machining process in terms of cost,
application, scope, machine time and limitations. Dec 2014, Jan 2015
20. List and explain the various factors to be considered for selection of machining processes.
June/July 2015
21.Classify various non-traditional machining process based on energy source used with giving
suitable examples. June/July 2015
22. Based on the various parameters of machining, compare the conventional and non-conventional
machining processes. June/July 2015
23.How modern machining processes are classified? June/July 2016
24.What are the essential physical process parameters for an efficient use of modern machining
processes ? June/July 2016
25.Why Non-traditional machining (NTM) processes are selected for manufacturing? June/July 2016

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MODULE - II
ULTRASONIC MACHINING
2.1 INRODUCTION
 The term ‘ultrasonic’ is used to describe a vibratory wave of a frequency above that of upper
frequency limit of human ear, i.e. above 16 kHz.
 The upper frequency range of ultrasonic is largely dependent on generator.
 Practical limitations imposing a maximum frequency in the region of 500MHz.The range of
wavelength in varying media is very wide.
 Longitudinal waves are mostly used in ultrasonic, since they are easily generated. They can be
propagated in solids, liquids and gases. They can travel at a high velocity so that their
wavelength is short in most media.
 The device for converting any type of energy into ultrasonic waves is called Ultrasonic
Transducer.
 Most industrial applications employ transducers energized by electrical power at the required
frequency. The electrical energy is converted into mechanical vibrations, and for this the
piezo electric effect in the natural or synthetic crystals, or magneto strictive effect exhibited by
some metals is utilized.
 USM is a process in which material is removed due to the action of abrasive grains. The
abrasive particles are driven into the work surface by a tool oscillating normal to work surface
at high frequency.

2.1.1 Principle of Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

When a tool vibrating at a very high frequency is brought closer to the work piece with
abrasive particles between them, the vibrating energy of the tool can propel the abrasive
particles to strike the work piece with a great velocity. The impact of the abrasive particle
fractures the hard work surface resulting in the removal of material from the work piece.

2.2 WORKING OF USM

 The tool is made of soft materials, oscillated at frequencies of the order of 20 to 30 kHz
with amplitude of about 0.02mm.
 It is pressed against the work piece with a load of few kilograms and fed downwards
continuously as the cavity is cut in the work.
 The tool is shaped as the approximate mirror image of the configuration of cavity desired
in the work.
 The excitement to the tool is mostly given by means of magneto strictive transducer.
 The slurry which is made of abrasive particles suspended in a liquid is fed into the cutting
zone under pressure.

(Two sketches have been provided, Draw any one sketch)

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OR

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2.3 ELEMENTS or EQUIPMENT of PROCESS:

The main elements of this process are

1. Work material
2. Power Supply
3. Transducer
4. Tool cone and Tool tip
5. Abrasive slurry

1. Work material:
It has been confirmed that chips can form in this process, that is ductile failures can also take
place. There appear to be no limitation to the range of materials that can be machined except
that they should not dissolve in slurry media or react with it.

2. Power Supply
USM uses very high power sine wave generator that converts the low frequency electrical
power (50Hz) to a high frequency electric power (20KHz). The electrical signal is then
supplied to the transducer

3. Transducer
The high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to traducer which converts it into high
frequency low amplitude vibration. Essentially transducer converts electrical energy to
mechanical vibration.
There are two types of transducer used:
1. Piezo electric transducer:
Piezoelectric transducer generates mechanical motion through the piezoelectric
effect of certain materials like Quartz or Lead – Zirconate. When an electric
current is applied to one of these materials the materials increases minutely in size
and when the current is removed, the material instantly return to its original shape.

2. Magneto-stricitve transducer:
In this type, transducer materials are constructed from a laminated stack of nickel
or nickel alloy sheets. Their conversion efficiency is about 20-30%. Such
transducers are available up to 2000 Watts. The maximum change in length can be
achieved is about 25 microns.

4. Tool cone and Tool tip:

The tool holder holds and connects the tool to the transducer. It virtually transmits the energy
In some cases, amplifies the amplitude of vibration. Material of tool should have good
acoustic properties, high resistance to fatigue cracking. Measures should be taken to avoid
ultrasonic welding between transducer and tool holder. Commonly used tool holders are
Monel, titanium, stainless steel. Tool holders are more expensive, demand higher operating
cost.

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Tool tip:
 The tool tip is attached to the base of the cone by silver brazing, soft soldering or by
means of screws.
 The smaller the contact area the better the abrasive flow under the tool and the penetration
rate will be high.
 The cost of making the tool and the time required to change tools are critical factors in the
economics of ultrasonic machining. The tool tip has to withstand vibrations and it should
not fail or wear out quickly. Most of the wears occurs at the end, wear at sides is about
ten times less.
 Tools are made of relatively ductile materials like Brass, Stainless steel or Mild steel so
that Tool wear rate (TWR) can be minimized.
 The size of the tool is slightly smaller than that of the desired shape in the work piece.

5. Abrasive slurry:

Some of abrasive that are in use are

1. Aluminum oxide (alumina)

2. Boron oxide
3. Silicon carbide
4. Diamond dust

 Boron is most expensive abrasive material but is best suited for cutting tungsten carbide,
tool steel and precious stones.
 Silicon finds maximum application.
 Alumina is best for cutting glass, germanium and ceramics.
 Diamond and rubies are nicely cut by using diamond powder which ensures good
accuracy, surface finish and cutting rates.
 Boron silicon carbide is a new abrasive which has an abrasive powder 8%-12% greater
that of boron carbide.
 The size of abrasive varies between 200 to 2000 grits.
 The surface roughness of the machined face is governed by the work material, roughness
of the tool, vibration amplitude, fineness of abrasive grit and efficient slurry circulation.

Liquid media:
 The abrasive is suspended in liquid.
 The liquid performs many functions;
 Acts as an acoustic bond between the work piece and the vibrating tool
 Acts as coolant.
 Helps efficient transfer of energy between the work piece and tool
 Provides a medium to carry away the worn abrasive.

The characteristics of good suspension media (liquid) are:

 The density approximately equal to that of abrasive.

 Good wetting properties to wet the tool, work, and abrasives.

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 High thermal conductivity and specific heat for efficient removal of heat from the cutting
zone.
 Low viscosity to carry the abrasive down the sides of the hole between the tool and work
piece.
 Non corrosive properties to avoid corrosion of work piece and tool. Water is frequently
used as a liquid carrier. Some inhibitor is generally added to the water.

The different slurry feeding arrangements:

Fig: 2.2 Types of slurry feeding mechanism

a) In jet flow, where the abrasive slurry is feed around the solid tool.
b) In suction flow, where the abrasive slurry is removed from the working area the passage in
hollow tool.

6. Tool feed mechanism:

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The feed mechanism of an ultrasonic machine must perform the following functions;
 Bring the tool very slowly to the work piece.
 Provide adequate cutting forces and sustain this during cutting.
 Decrease the force at specified depth.
 Over a small distance to ensure the required hole size at the exit.
 Return the tool.

 For accurate working, it is vital that the feed mechanism be precise and sensitive. In the
system shown in above figure, counter weight are used.
 The force brings the difference between weight of head and that of the counter weight
attached through a pulley or lever system (Fig. 2.3 (a) and (b) ).
 The force is adjusted through the weight. Though simple such a system is in sensitive and
inconvenient to adjust.
 Figure 2.3 (c) shows a compact spring-loaded system which is quite sensitive.
 For high rating machines pneumatic or hydraulic systems may be used (Fig 2.3 (d) ).

2.4 MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESS:

Fig 2.4 Material removal process

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Material removal mechanism of USM involves three distinct actions:

1. Mechanical abrasion by localized direct hammering of the abrasive grains stuck between
the vibrating tool and adjacent work surface
2. The micro-chipping by free impacts of particles that fly across the machining gap and
strike the work piece at random locations.
3. The work surface erosion by cavitations in the slurry stream.

Material Removal Process

 The relative contribution of the cavitations effect is reported to be less than 5% of the total
material removed.
 The dominant mechanism involved in USM of all materials is direct hammering.
 Soft and elastic materials like mild steel are often plastically deformed first and are later
removed at a lower rate.
 In case of hard and brittle materials such as glass, the machining rate is high and the role
played by free impact can also be noticed.
 The rate of material removal, in USM, depends, on the frequency of tool vibration, static
pressure, the size of the machined area, and the abrasive and work piece material.
 MRR and machinability by USM depends on the brittleness criterion which is the ratio of
shearing to breaking strength of a material.

2.6 Process parameters in USM:-

Process parameters affects the metal removal rate (MRR), surface finish and
accuracy of the machined surface.
1. Effect of amplitude and frequency of vibrations

• MRR increases with increase in both Amplitude and Frequency.

• f (frequency) and a0 (amplitude) determines its effects on velocity of abrasive particles.
• High amplitude tend to increase the surface roughness, however the effect is minimum.

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2. Effect of Grain Diameter

Fig:2.11 Relation b/w abrasive grain size and MRR

 Cutting rate increases linearly with grain size.

 The size of the abrasive particle varies between 240 – 800 grit
 Finer grades 750-800 grit are used for fine surface finish but MRR is less

3. Effect of Applied Static Loads:

Fig 2.12: Effect of applied load on the MRR at different amplitudes of vibration and for different
sizes of tool

 The machining rate reaches a maximum as the static load on the tool is increased.
 The point of maximum shift, depending on the amplitude of vibration and the cross-
sectional area of tool.
 Surface finish is found to be little affected by the applied static load.
 Higher loads, contras to expectations, do not give a rougher finish.
 Surface finish in fact improves because the grains are crushed to small size with higher
load.

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4. Effect of Slurry:

Fig:2.13 Effect of slurry concentration on tool

material

 It has been found that a rise in cutting rate can be achieved with an increase in slurry
concentration.
 Slurry saturation occurs at 30 to 40% abrasive to water mixture.
 Material Removal rate drops with increasing viscosity.
 The MRR can be increased even ten times by supplying the slurry at an increasing
pressure.

5. Effect of Tool and work Material:

 The shape of the tool affects the material removal rate (MRR). Narrower rectangular tool
gives more MRR compared to square cross section.
 Conical tool gives twice MRR compared to cylindrical tool
 Brittle Non-metallic materials can be cut at higher rates than ductile materials.
 Tool has to withstand vibration, it should not fail or wear out quickly.
 Harder the tool material, the faster the wear rate

2.7 USM PROCESS (Capabilities) CHARECTERISTICS

1. Material removal rate

2. Tool wear
3. Accuracy
4. Surface finish

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1.Material removal rate:
 Brittle non metallic materials can be cut at higher rates than ductile materials
 USM work satisfactorily only when workpiece hardness is greater than HRC40
 Generally stainless steel, glass, ceramics, semiconductors are machined by USM
 USM is more suitable for hard and brittle materials
 USM can be employed to machine nearly all material.

 MRR of USM depends on following factors

 Amplitude of vibration of tool
 Frequency of vibration of tool
 Abrasive grain size (diameter)
 Abrasive slurry concentration
 Tool shape
 Work material
 Applied static load

Sl MRR(mm3/Min)
Work Material
No

1 Glass 425

2 Ceramic 185

3 Mica (glass Bonded) 390

4 Tungsten Carbide 40

5 Tool Steel (Hardened) 30

2.Accuracy

 In USM process, tolerance up to + 0.007 mm can be achieved.

 Inaccuracy occurring in USM is the taper.

 Taper is less with fine grain abrasive particles.

 To obtain good accuracy, abrasive slurry should be changed frequently.

 To obtain good accuracy, use of two or more tool for wear.

 Tolerance up to + 0.03 mm can be achieved for diameter and +0.06mm for depth can be
achieved.

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Accuracy affected by,

 Side wear of the tool

 Abrasive wear
 Inaccurate feed of the tool holder
 Form error of the tool
 Unsteady and uneven supply of abrasive slurry

3. Tool wear

 Tool wear is USM is defined as the volume of material removed from the work piece to
the volume material eroded from the tool.

 wear ratio = volume of material removed from the work piece

Volume of material eroded from the tool

 Tools made from brass, tungsten carbide, MS or tool steel will wear from the action of
abrasive grit with a ratio that range from 1:1 to 200:1.

4. Surface finish

 Surface finish produced by USM is depends on size of abrasives ,work material , tool
amplitude etc.,
 Fine size of abrasive produce good surface finish in the order of 0.2 -0.8 microns.
 Coarse grain size abrasive particles are used for rough surface finish.
 Surface finish - closely related to the machining rate in USM.
 Table shows the relationship between grit number and grit size.

 Larger the grit size, faster the cutting rate but surface finish is poor.
 Surface finish of 0.38 to 0.25 μm can be expected using abrasives of grit number 240.
 However, other factors such as tool surface, amplitude of tool vibration, and material
being machined also affect the surface finish.
 Amplitude of tool oscillation has a smaller effect on the surface finish.
 As the amplitude is raised, individual grains are pressed further into the workpiece
surface and cause deeper craters  a rough surface.
 Static pressure has a little effect on the surface finish.
 The larger chipping marks formed on brittle materials create rougher surfaces than that
obtained in case of hard alloy steel.

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2.9 APPLICATIONS OF USM:

 Hard, brittle work materials such as ceramics, glass, and carbides, precious stones, and
hardened steels.

 Also successful on certain metals, such as stainless steel and titanium

 Shapes include non-round holes, holes along a curved axis

 Threading of various glass and ceramic materials.

 Hard materials and precious stones such as synthetic ruby for the preparation of jewels are
successfully machined by this method.

 Ultrasonic machining is useful in micro-drilling hole up to 0.05mm.

 Enabling a dentist to drill a hole of any shape without creating any pain.

 Casting and welding of metals.

2.10 ADVANTAGES
 The process has the advantages of machining hard and brittle materials to complex shapes
with good accuracy and reasonable surface finish.
 Ability to machine nonconductive materials like Glass, ceramics etc.
 It is capable to machine intricate cavities in single pass in fragile, hard materials.
 In USM, there is no direct contact between the tool and workpiece hence it is a good
process for machining very thin and fragile components.
 A brittle material can be machined more easily than a ductile one.
 It is considered as a very safe process because it does not involve high voltage, chemicals,
and heat.
 It is non thermal, non-chemical, creates no change in the microstructure, physical
properties of workpiece material.

2.11 DISADVANTAGES
 The major limitation of the process is its comparatively low metal cutting rates.
 Tool wear increases the angle of the holes, while sharp corners become rounded.
This implies that tool replacement is essential for producing accurate blind hole.
 Sometimes the accuracy of a machined surface is lost due to the presence of strong lateral
vibrations.
 Abrasive slurry has to be periodically replaced for efficient machining
 It is costlier for complex shapes

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ABRASIVE JET MACHINING AND WATER JET MACHINING

2.12 INTRODUCTION:
Abrasive jet machining is a material removal process, where the material is removed by
high velocity stream of air/gas or water and abrasive mixture.
This is a nonconventional machining process which is classified under mechanical energy
method. This is used mainly to cut complex shapes in hard and brittle materials. This process
involves the spraying of high speed abrasive particle through a jet nozzle on the work piece. An
abrasive is small, hard particle having sharp edges and an irregular shape.

FIG 1:- Mechanism of AJM

2.13 PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION:-

This process is similar to sand blasting but uses fine abrasive at high speed.
Air or carbon-dioxide is used as the abrasive carrying medium. A stream of abrasive particle
mixed with air (gases like carbon-dioxide, nitrogen etc) is sprayed through the nozzle on the work
piece to perform machining. Abrasive particle strikes the work surface at high speed and thus
metal removal takes place. Impinging velocity ranges from 150-300m/s. Aluminium oxide or
silicon carbide are used for cleaning and polishing of surface.

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2.14 EQUIPMENTS IN AJM :-

FIG.: Equipments in Ajm

Above figure shows the main components in an abrasive jet machining system. Basically
it consists of high pressure gas supply source, powder mixing chamber, control valve, nozzle,
hood and exhaust system. A high pressure gas source of 6.5-8.5 bars is necessary to pressurize the
system. The gases commonly used are air, carbon-dioxide, and nitrogen gases.
Gases should be free from dust particle, oil and water. A filter is provided in the supply line to
filter carrier gas. The abrasive powder is held in a hopper and fed to the mixing chamber.
The mixing chamber works under vibrations generated by electric means and causes the mixing
of abrasive particles with carrier gas. The powdered quality is measured and uniformly mixed
with the gas.
The jet velocity is in the range of 150-300 m/s and strikes on the work piece. A dust collection
hood is provided at the working table with a vacuum dust collector. This helps in sucking the dust
abrasive and machined particles. Nozzle tip are made of hard materials like tungsten carbide,
since it may undergo abrasive wear.
2.15 WORKING PROCESS:-
A high velocity gas is supplied from the gas source to the mixing chamber through the
nozzle. Filter is provided in the supply line and filters the gas from dust particles. The flow of gas
to the mixing chamber is controlled by pressure regulator which maintains the pressure constant.
The abrasive powders are fed to the mixing chamber through hopper. Due to vibration caused by
vibrator the mixing chamber is operated and results in mixing of gas and abrasive powder.
The mixing of abrasive powder and gas forms a stream and flow through the tip of nozzle.
The flow rate of mixing is controlled by control valve.

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The stream of mixture flows through the nozzle and strikes the work surface at high velocity.
Abrasive particles erode the work surface and metal removal takes place.

2.16 PROCESS VARIABLES IN AJM:-

Variables that influence rate of metal removal and accuracy of machining in the process are:-
a. Carrier gas.
b. Type of abrasive.
c. Size of abrasive grain.
d. Velocity of the abrasive jet.
e. Mean number of abrasive particles per unit of the carrier
f. Work material.
g. Standoff.
h. Nozzle design.
i. Shape of cut.
a. Carrier gas:-
 The carrier gas is used in abrasive jet machining should not flare excessively, when
discharge from the nozzle into the atmosphere.
 The carrier gas should be nontoxic, cheap, easily available and can be cleaned without
difficulty.
 Carrier gas that are commonly used are air, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
 Air is most widely used owing to easy availability and little cost.
 Carrier gas should be clean, for this a filter has been installed.
b. Type of abrasive:-
 Selection of abrasive depends on the type of machining operation.
 Abrasive should have sharp and irregular shape.
 Abrasive should be fine enough to get mixed in carrier gas.
 Abrasive should have excellent flow characteristics.
 Abrasive used for cutting are Al2O3 and siliconcarbide.
 Sodium bicarbonate is used for cleaning, deburring and polishing.
 Abrasive should not be reused because of its cutting ability decreases.
c. Grain size:-
 Metal removal rate depends upon the size of abrasive grain.
 Finer grains are less irregular in shape and hence possess less cutting ability.
 Finer grains tends to stick together block the nozzle.

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 Grain size ranges from 10 to 50 microns.
 Coarse grains are recommended for cutting.
 Finer grains are used for polishing and deburring.
The effect of grain size on the rate of metal removal v/s jet pressure is shown in fig

FIG.3:- effect of abrasive jet pressure on the material removal rate.

d. Jet velocity:-
 The kinetic energy of the abrasive jet is utilized for metal removed by erosion.
 For erosion to occur to jet of abrasive should impinge the work surface with minimum
velocity.
 For the erosion of glass by silicon carbide abrasives, the minimum jet velocity should
be around 150 m/s.
 Jet velocity is the function of the nozzle pressure, nozzle design, and abrasive grain
size.

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e. Mean number of abrasive grains per unit volume of the carrier gas:-
 Mean number of abrasive grains per unit volume of the carrier gas is obtained from the
mixing ratio.
 Mixing ratio (M) is defined as the ratio of volume flow rate of abrasive per unit time to
the volume flow rate of carrier gas per unit time.
 A large value of M results in higher metal removal rate but large abrasive flow rate
affect the jet velocity.
f. Work material:-
 Abrasive jet machining process is recommended for the machining of brittle materials
such as glass, ceramics.
 Most of the Ductile materials are unmachinable by abrasive jet machining.
 Metal removal rate depends upon the hardness of the work material to be machined.
g. Standoff distance (SOD):-
 Stand of distance is defined as the distance between the face of the nozzle and
working surface of the work piece.
 Stand of distance has considerable effect of metal removal rate as well as accuracy.
 Large stand of distance leads to poor accuracy.
 Small metal removal rate at a low stand of distance is due to reduction in nozzle
pressure with decrease in distance.
 Large stand of distance drops in MRR due to reduction in jet velocity.
 Figure below shows the relationship between the SOD and the rate of material
removal. Small MRR at a low SOD is due to reduction in nozzle pressure with
decreasing distance, whereas a drop in MRR at large SOD is due to a reduction in the
jet velocity with increasing distance.

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h. Nozzle design:-
 Nozzle has to withstand and the erosive action of abrasive particles. Hence nozzle
must be made of hard materials like tungsten carbide.
 Nozzle should be designed such that the pressure loss is as little as possible.
 Nozzle may be either circular or rectangular depending on the requirements.
i. Shape of cut:-
 Accuracy of machining is also dependent on the shape of cut.
 It may not be possible to machine components with sharp corners.

2.17 PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

The process characteristics are
a. Metal removal rate
b. Nozzle wear
c. Accuracy
d. Surface finish
a. Metal removal rate:-
 Metal removal is due to chipping of work surface by the impact action of abrasive
particles.
 Metal removal rate is about 16 mm3/min in cutting operations by abrasive jet machining
process.
 Width of cut is about 0.1mm with a rectangular nozzle of size 0.075*1.5mm at a
distance of 0.08mm from the work surface.
b. Nozzle wear:-
 The life of the nozzle is limited by excessive wear.
 This affects the accuracy of machining and MRR.
c. Accuracy:-
 In abrasive jet machining tolerances in the range of +/- 0.05mm can be achieved for
small work pieces.
 In normal production job tolerances upto +/- 0.1mm can be achieved.
 The corner radius can be upto 0.1mm.
 Taper is around 0.05mm per 10 mm of depth.
d. Surface finish:-
 Surface finish in AJM ranges from 0.4 to 1.2 µm depending upon abrasive particle size.

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 Surface has no effect due to heat as the work surface remains at room temperature and
carrier gas act as coolant.
 The damage due to impact of abrasives does not exceed a depth of 2µm.
ADVANTAGES
 Ability to cut complex hole shapes in materials of any hardness and brittleness.
 Ability to cut fragile and heat sensitive materials without damage.
 There is no vibration since the tool is free from the workpiece.
 The operation is simple.
 Low capital cost.
 Extremely fast setup.
 Environment friendly.
DISADVANTAGES
 Metal removal rate is slow.
 It needs dust control system.
 Nozzle life is limited.
 Machining accuracy is poor.
 Embedding of the abrasive in the workpiece surface may occur while machining softer
materials.
APPLICATIONS
 Abrasive jet machining process is used for machining brittle materials and heat
sensitive materials like glass, quartz, semiconductor materials, mica and ceramics.
 Abrasive jet machining process is used in drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard
surfaces.
 Removing flash and parting lines from moulded parts.
 Deburring and polishing plastic, nylon and teflon components.
 Removing glue and paint from paintings and leather objects.
 Etching markings on glass cylinders.

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Water jet machining

Introduction
Water jet machining is also called as hydrodynamic machining. The principle is commonly
used in hydraulic turbine for converting kinetic energy of water into pressure energy. WJM is
used in cutting and deburring operation of metals. Water jet acts like saw and cuts a groove in
the metals. A pressure of about 400 Mpa is used for efficient operation. Jet nozzle diameter
ranges from 0.05-1mm. In WJM a variety of materials can be cut like plastics, rubber, wood
products, and leather. The thickness of metal cut ranges from 0.8 to 100 mm nozzle orifice
diameter ranges from 0.25 to 0.5 mm.

Fig Schematic representation of WJM

Principle of operation
The principle of operation of a water jet machining is shown in figure.
It consists of water supply source, intensifier, accumulator, hydraulic control unit and high
quality nozzle. Water from the tank is supplied to the intensifier by means of a pump. The
hydraulic intensifier increases the intensity of the water pressure and supplies it to a
hydraulic accumulator. Accumulator controls the fluctuating the water pressure and brings
the fluid to a constant pressure. Accumulator also stores the water and is given out during
cutting. Intensifier need not supply high amount of energy as required by the cutting
process by performing maximum cutting. The high pressure water coming from the
accumulator is controlled by control panel and supplied to the nozzle through the flow
control valve. From the main control valve the fluid is supplied to the operating valve with
the help of flexible hoses. The flow control valve and nozzle constitute a single unit and

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which is controlled by the machining operator. The operator controls unit based on
machining process. The jet stream coming out of the nozzle cuts the work piece held on
the work table. The water jet after cutting is then collected in the collector tank for further
filtering and recirculation.

Equipment’s:-
It consist of pump (intensifier), valves and high quality nozzle
1. Pump
 Pressure in the liquid to 1500 to 4500 MN/m2 is done either by a pump or by an
intensifier.
 Intermediate pressure fluid derives a large area piston which in turn drives a small
diameter ram and pumps the fluid to accumulator.
 At an intermediate pressure is sealing the high pressure RAM.
 Solution for sealing problem is in to change the high pressure quickly or by lubricating the
seals with soluble oils, mixed with 5% of H2O.

2. Tubing
 High pressure tubing is used to transport fluid from one component to another.
 Tubing is thick walled with a ratio of outside to inside diameter is around 5 to 10 mm.
 Tubing can be made from a solid stainless steel wall or a composite wall with stainless
steel inside and a carbon steel jacket.

3. valves
 High pressure valves are of the needle type.
 The main flow is controlled by a cone shape at the end of the needle which is fixed in to
the seat.

4. Nozzle
 Nozzle is meant to convert high pressure liquid to a high velocity jet.
 Nozzle material should be very hard.
 Diamond, tungsten carbide have been used for making quality nozzle.
 Life of a diamond orifice is about 10 times higher than that of other orifice.
 The cost of diamond is almost to 10 times higher than other orifice.

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Process Parameters of WJM:

Following are the critical parameters that effect on the MRR
• Pressure of water
• Nozzle diameter
• Stand Off Distance (SOD)
1. Pressure of water:
o Higher the velocity of the jet of water, the better is the cutting action by it.
o Pressure of the water at the nozzle inlet should be high in order to obtain a high velocity
jet at the nozzle exit.
o As the pressure increases the cost and maintenance of the equipment also increases.
o Maximum pressure of 400 Mpa is suitable for most of the metal cutting operation
2. Nozzle Diameter
 Nozzle with an exit diameter of 0.05-0.35 mm gives a coherent jet length of up to 3-4 cm
 Higher value of nozzle exit diameter gives a good MRR
3. Stand Off Distance (SOD)
 Nozzle to workpiece SOD is less than 25mm
 SOD is considered as a fixed parameter and varies in different situations
 SOD is depends on:
 Type of metal
 Thickness
 Shape
 Diameter of Jet
 MRR

Advantages
1. Liquids are used in water jet machining. ie. the process is a dust free process.
2. No heat produced. No heat affected zones or mechanical stresses left on the cut surface.
3. The process gives a clean and sharp cut.
4. Fine surface finish can be obtained.
5. Soft materials up to 250mm thick can be easily machined.
6. Health hazards associated while cutting materials like asbestos and fiberglass are minimized.
7. Cut can be started anywhere without the need for pre-drilled holes
8. Burr produced is minimum
9. Environmentally safe and friendly manufacturing

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Disadvantages
 The jet noise is very high during cutting operation.
 High pressure water easily vaporizes in to air.
 Inefficient for thick metals.
 Water which is re-circulated, should be filtered accurately, otherwise results in cracks and
damage to the nozzle tip.
 High pressure and noise of the Jet of water necessitates safety equipment’s.
 Contaminated water must be treated before disposal

Applications of WJM
 WJM process is also be used for cleaning.
 It is used for cutting thin details in stone, glass, and metals, drilling hole on titanium.
 Used for cutting composites, plastics, fabrics, rubber, wood products etc.
 Also used in food processing industry.
 Used to cut non metallic materials like glass epoxy, Graphite, Boron, Fiber reinforced
plastics, leather.
 Used in aircraft industries for profile cutting of fiber reinforce plastic .
 In mining and quarrying work , in tunnel profiles prior to drilling and blasting
 Cutting PCB for electronic applications

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Module 3

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

INTRODUCTION:
Electrochemical machining is a machining process that may be described as the “Reverse of
electroplating”.

In electroplating the metal is deposited on the work piece, whereas instead of depositing metal
on the work piece, electrochemical machining reverse the process so that the metal is removed
from the work piece.

Principle of operation: Electrochemical machining process is based on the fundamentalprocess

on the fundamental law of electrolysis, which states that the amount of material deposited or
dissolved, is directly proportional to the current density multiplied by time.

High density direct current is passed through an electrolyte solution that fills the gap between
the work piece (anode) and the shaped tool (cathode). The electrochemical reaction removes
the metal of the work piece.

Refer to the fig. The work piece (which must be conductor of electricity) is placed in a tank
on the machine table and connected to the positive terminal of DC supply.

Thus work piece is made anode in ECM process. (In electroplating the work piece made the
cathode by connecting the same to the negative terminal)

The tool electrode shaped to form the required cavity on the work piece is mounted in the work
tool holder and connected to the negative terminal of the supply. An electrolyte flows through
the gap (which is 0.0254 to 0.76mm) between the tool and the work piece and is then pumped
back to the work zone either to the tool or externally depending on the application.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

There is no mechanical contact between work piece and tool and any tendency of work piece
metal to be plated on the tool(cathode) is counteracted by the flow of electrolyte which
removes the dissolved metal from the work zone. Here there is neither tool wear nor plating
of the work piece material on the tool so that one tool can produce a large number of component
during its life. The voltage and current constant in ECM process.

Study of ECM Machine:

It was earlier thought that since the tool does not come in contact with work, the machining
force involved are small. But this is not true. Machine and tooling in ECM have to be strong
and rigid as required in conventional metal cutting processes. At times the electrolyte pressure
within the work gap exerts force of several thousand Newtons. The structure of machine must
be strong rigid to limit the deflections.

ECM machines are available in many types and sizes, having different system for loading, set-
up, and tooling, alignment between the work and tool and methods for control. Provisions are
made for electrical contact of work piece with the positive terminal and tool with the negative
terminal of the power supply. A pump supplies the electrolyte under pressure ( about
1.5 N/mm2) in the gap between the work and tool. Hydrogen generated in the process is
removed from the work enclosure to prevent any serious explosion.

Modern ECM machines are equipped with the means to safely handle high currents as well as
special drive system that ensures slow and accurate movement of the tool. They are also lined
with non-corrosive materials for protection from the corrosive action of electrolyte.

Element of ECM Process:

The elements of the process are:

1. Cathode tool (of a shape which is almost the mirror image of the cavity to be
machined in the work piece)
2. Anode work piece (and means to hold and located it near the tool)
3. Source of DC power ( of sufficient capacity so that high current densities can be
maintained between the tool and work piece)
4. Electrolyte a conductive liquid (and means supply it into the gap between the tool and
work piece)

Cathode Tool: The materials that find wide application in the manufacture of tool for ECM
are Aluminium, brass, Bronze, Copper, Stainless Steel and etc.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Tool must be made undersize to adjust the over cut, which varies depending on electrolyte
flow and required accuracy.

Tool surface should be polished to a smooth finish. Any slight defect in the tool may affect
the machining leaving marks on the machined surface.

Anode Work piece: It must be good conductor of electricity. The removal rate is
proportional to the atomic weight and inverse of the valency of the work material.

Source of DC power: Furnishes 5 to 24 volts but 500 to 2500Amps of direct current (DC),
though most work can be done with 1000 to 5000 amps

Electrolyte: Electrolyte in ECM performs the following functions:

• Completing the electric circuit between the tool and the work piece.
• Allowing desirable machining reaction to occur.
• Carrying away the heat generated during the chemical reaction.

Essential Properties: An effective and efficient electrolyte should have the following
characteristics:

✓ High electrical conductivity

✓ Low velocity and high specific heat
✓ Chemical stability
✓ Passivating film on work surface
✓ Non – corrosive and non toxic in nature
✓ In expensive and readily available.

Chemistry of the Process : In the electrolytic circuit shown in the fig. The electron flow is
from the work piece, through the power supply to the tool. Many chemical reactions occur at
the cathode and anode in the electrolyte.

At the cathode following reaction occur at the anode:

✓ M+ + e- = M (M denotes any metal)

✓ 2H+ + 2e- = H2 (hydrogen evolution)
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

The following reactions occur at the anode:

✓ M = M+ + e- (metal dissolution)
✓ 2H2O =O2+ 4H+ + 4e (Oxygen evolution)
✓ 2 CI = CI2 + 2e (Halogen gas evolution)

It has been established that the metal dissolution reaction is main or the only reaction that
occurs. When the metal ions leave the work piece surface, many reactions occurs in the
electrolyte. A typical example of the electrochemical machining of iron using “Nacl” as
electrolyte can be considered.

As an ion of iron (Fe++) leaves the work piece surface it reacts with hydroxyl ions(OH-)

That have been reacted to the anode work piece.

Fe + 2(OH) = Fe (OH)2

This ferrous hydroxide is a green black participate. It reacts with the air of the atmosphere to
form ferric hydroxide which is red brown in colour.

The complex ECM process can be represented by the following chemical equation:

2Fe + 4H2O + O2 = 2Fe (OH)3 + H2

It is interesting to note that the salt is note being to consumed and metal is being machined at
the expense of electrical energy and a little of water. The electrolyte acts only as a carrier
current. From this it can be further seen that current of 1000A would dissolve iron rate of about
15g/min and generate the hydrogen at the rate of about 600 cm3/min.

ECM Process Characteristics:

1. Metal Removal Rate: The overall machining rate is governed by the Faradys Laws of
Electrolysis which state
• That the amount of chemical change produced by the current i.e the amount of
any deposited or dissolved is proportional to the quantity of electricity that is
passed through the electrolyte and
• That the amount of metal from an electrode or deposited on to electrode by flow
of the same quantity of electricity
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

e.g. one faraday is equal to one gram equivalent weight of metal. The
quantitative unit of electricity called faraday which is the amount of electricity
that reduce one gram-equivalent weight of a substance at the cathode and
oxidizes one gram equivalent weight of a substance at the cathode.

1 Faraday =6.02 × 1023e = 96500 coulombs

Combining this two laws

W= EIt / F ------------------ (1)

Where,

W is the mass of ions dissolved in Kg ion

E is the equivalent weight of the substance dissolved or deposited and is equal to atomic
weight(N) / valency(n), the time in sec, and F is equal to Faraday constant or 96500 coulombs

Assuming that all the current flowing through the electrolytic cell is used in the desired metal
removal process, i.e 100% current efficiency in steady state flow condition, the rate of metal
removal expressed in terms of the height of the removed layer will be given by:

MRR= W/Apt m/s (2)

Where,

A is the machined area in m2 and row is the density of the work piece in kg/m3

Using eq. 1&2

MRR= EIt/FAρt = EI/FAρ

Hence ,

MRR = Ejc / Fρ m/s

Where ,

jc = current density = I/A, for 1 Sq unit area.

Also MRR = EI/Fρ m3/sec

The feed rate of electrode (F) is given by

 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

f= V/ρsh × E/Fρ m/s

where,

V is the machining voltage(volt), rows the specific resistance of electrolyte in ohm-m

and h the tool-work gap in m.

The current efficiency is given by:

= Actual metal removed/amp-min/theoretical metal removal/amp-minx 100%

Accuracy of ECM: There are number of factors which govern the accuracy of the parts
produced by ECM. The major ones are:

• Machining voltage
• Feed rate of electrode (tool)
• Temperature of electrolyte
• Concentration of electrolyte

Under ideal condition with properly designed tooling ECM is capable of holding tolerance of
the order of ±0.02mm and less. In general tolerance can be maintained on a production basis
in the region of ±0.02 to 0.04mm. ECM results in internal radii greater than 0.2mm and external
radii of the order of 0.05mm. Taper is of the order of 0.010mm for 10mm depth and the side
over cut is about 0.1 to 0.2mm

Surface Finish: In ECM is of the order of 0.2 to 0.8 microns depending on the work material
and the electrolyte used and no burrs or sharp edges are left on the work piece.

ECM tooling Technique and Example: The fig(1) shows the simple round tool. Theleading
edge is sharp and the shank is not insulated. This type of tool produces a considerable amount
of taper because the complete surface area of the hole produced being constantly machined.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

The fig(2) shows the same tool with insulation on the sides. This limits ECM action extending
from the tip of the tool to the top of the hole and no significant taper is produced.

The Fig(3) Shows a tool with its leading edge radius to encourage uniform electrolyte flow
around the corner. Also a tip brazed on the shank of the tool allows easy replacement and use
of materials such as tungsten and copper to prevent the damage in the event of arcing.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

The Fig(4) shows at another improvement that has proved effective in eliminating any
significant taper encountered in the previous methods. The overlap of the tip causes the
electrolyte flow to break up as is passes around the radiuses corner. This minimizes the effect
of any stray currents are likely to cause additional machining over the already finished surfaces.

Tool and Insulation Materials: Any electrically conductive material can be used as a tool but
the corrosive nature of the electrolyte necessitates the use of materials such as stainless steel or
brass. Other factors to be considered machinability of tool material of the tool material, thermal
conductivity, rigidity and electrical resistance. Machinability is part curly
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

important if complex shaped tools are required. Higher thermal conductivity reduces the risk
of the tool damage in the event of sparking. Rigidity of the tool construction and material is
because the high pressure electrolyte can cause deflection of the tooling.

With regard to insulation the most commonly used materials are Porcelain, Vinyl, Phenolic,
Enamel, Teflon and Epoxy. These applied to electrode by spraying or dipping. Sometimes they
are attached to the tool in the form of pre-machined self supporting members.

Another factors to be considered in applying the insulation is to prevent the area where the
insulation is bonded to the tool material from being directly in line with the high pressure
electrolyte flow.

Tool size: The ECM tool is approximately the mirror image of the machined area of the
completed part. The tool dimension are slightly different to allow for over cut(side and front
machining gaps) which can range from 0.025 to 0.5mm depending upon the feed rate,
electrolyte flow etc. The side over cut is about 1.5 times the front gap. The size correction of
a die sinking ECM tool is more complex than in a simple generating ECM tool (for example,
drilling, trepanning or similar operation)

Electrolyte Flow Arrangement: Correct flow across the tool is essential for proper
machining. Attention should be paid to the tool shape where cavitations of electrolyte is
likely to occur. Tool design must permit a uniform electrolyte flow in all machining areas.
Excessive flows are also not desirable as they erode the tool. Some of the correct methods of
arranging the flow patterns are shown schematically in fig 1
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Basically two methods of flow are used namely divergent flow and convergent flow Fig 2
illustrates the divergent flow application. This method is simple, inexpensive and it works
satisfactorily in most cases.

The convergent flow method shown in fig3 provides smooth flow of electrolyte. The advantage
of this system are:

1. More uniform and predictable side over cut and front machining gap.
2. Improved surface finish.
3. Reduced possibility of arcing
4. Much cleaner operation conditions
5. Eliminating of undesirable machining due to stray currents

It is however to be noted that the cost of tooling with convergent flow is more than that
with divergent flow system.

Handling of slug: when machining through-holes a slug material directly below the hole
in the tool is separated as the tool completes the breaking as shown in fig1:
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

This slug of work piece is free to remove in any direction and it might create a short circuiting
or it may damage the tooling by hitting against it. This hazard can be overcome bya few
methods. Two typical methods are shown here.

Fig: Safe handling of the slug

Fig: Safe handling of the slug

 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Economics: fixed cost of ECM installations are quite high as compared to its operating
cost. Overhead costs are the same as for other conventional methods. Some costs are
unique, such as those of high power, electrode tooling and electrolyte.

As stated in the beginning ECM needs power of high current capacity. In localities where
power is sufficiently cheap this factor can be overlooked.

Electrode or tooling cost is fixed because there is little wear of the ECM tool. There occurs
however a negligible abrasion wear of the electrode due to abrasion wear of electrode due
to electrolyte flow across the gap. With regard to actual cost it is not very different from
conventional machine tooling.

Electrolyte is not as costly as one might think it to be. The most widely used electrolyte is
sodium chloride(salt) and it is quite cheap. The normal price of the salt seldom exceeds
Rs0.50/Kg when purchased in large quantities.

Cost of the work piece fixture are not high the cost per piece will however depend on the
number of work piece finished.

On the shop floor, ECM installation need to be operated by very skilled engineers and the
operation of the machinery can be learnt easily.

The economic success of ECM in fact depends largely on the choice of application. If an
operation is simple or if the material can be easily machined by other methods, the high
cost of ECM plant cannot be justified.

OTHER APPLICATION OF ECM:

1. Electrochemical Turning (ECT): The fig shows a typical set up for an ECM turning
operation. Here the tool is made as wide as possible to cover the intended area. The tool
can also be made to any required complex shape. Holes are provided in the end of the
tool to supply the electrolyte. The tool is fed in to the work in the same way as in
conventional machining. This electrical and other parameter are the same as in ECM.
Special equipments are available for both face and peripheral metal removal.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Fig: Electrochemical turning

2. Electrochemical Grinding (ECG): Though the basic operating principles of ECG and
ECM are the same there are differences in application and methods of functioning.
Where as in ECM the tool never touches the work piece, in ECG the metal bonded
grinding wheel lightly touches the work piece, shown in fig. The metal removal is
largely about by electrochemical action and only 10% of the volume of material is
removed by abrasive action wheel. Therefore the pressure between the wheel and work
piece is only about 10% of the conventional grinding process, enabling fragile materials
to be ground.
Tolerances of about ±0.02mm are held on rather complex grinding operations. For
closer tolerances the proportion of material moved by abrasive should be increased. The
surface finish is held in the range of 0.2-0.4 microns on carbide and 0.4-0.8 microns on
steel. Sharp corners are difficult to obtain and a minimum radius of 0.2mm cannot be
avoided unless a final pass without electrolyte action is used.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Electrochemical Honing (ECH): Electrochemical honing can be used to increase the

metal removal rate by a factor of 2 or 3 than that achieved in conventional honing.
Conventional abrasive honing stones are used to maintain precise size of the bore. A
current density of the order to 15-45 A/cm2 at 6-30V DC passed to the work piece via
electrodes mounted between the stones and fitted with spacer so that there is a gap of
about 0.15mm between the work and electrode. The Fig shows a set-up for
electrochemical honing. The electrolyte supplied under pressure 5-10kg/cm2 via a series
of holes between the stones. The reciprocating and rotating motion of the tool ensures
an accuracy of ±0.002mm. a surface finish of 0.05 microns can be easily achieved in
production.
the advantages of this process are increased metal removal rate, burr-free action, less
pressure required between the stones and work, reduced noise and reduced distortion in
thin walled components. ECH equipment are available usually for internal honing
application.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Electrochemical Deburring(ECD): Deburring by the electrochemical method is

slightly different from ECM in that the tool and the work piece are placed in fixed
relative position with a gap of 0.1 - 1.0mm. the tool is positioned near the base of burr.
Specially built machines are deburring are available in the market. Electrolyzing
currents of the order of 6A/cm of linear edge length at 7 to 25DC are used. The ECD
process is ideal for deburring automobile connecting rods, gear teeth, blanking dies, and
valve ports, nozzle intersecting holes, punch press blanking and such other difficult to
reach interior surface. The fig shows a set-up for ECM deburring.

Advantages:
1. One of the main advantages of ECM lies in its ability to machine complex three
dimensional curved surface without the marks left by the milling cutter.
2. The process is capable of machining metals and alloys irrespective of their strength
and hardness.
3. High surface finish (0.5 micros) can be achieved by ECM process.
4. Complex geometrical shapes in high strength material particularly in the aerospace
industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet engine parts and nozzle can be
machined repeatedly and accurately.
5. Deep holes can be made by this process.

Limitation:

1. The main limitation of this process is that non conductive materials can not be
machined.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

2. Another limitation is the inability to machine sharp interior edges and corners( less
than 0.2mm radius) because of very high current densities those points.
3. Blind holes cannot be machined in the solid block in one stage.
4. Corrosion and rust of the ECM process can be hazard.
5. Although the parts produced by ECM are stress-free, they are found to have fatigue
strength or endurance limit lowered by approximately 10 to 25%

6. Space and floor area requirement are also higher than for conventional machining
methods.

Applications:

1. ECM is one of the most highly developed. It appears to have greatest potential for
versatility and is now being commercially utilized.
2. The process can handle a very large variety of material, limited only by their
electrochemical properties and not their strength.
3. Metal removal rates are high especially of high strength, difficult to machine alloys
developed for their needs of the space age.
4. Fragile parts which otherwise not easily machinable can be shaped by ECM.
5. Some specific applications of ECM are for
✓ Facing and turning complex three dimensional surfaces
✓ Die sinking, particurly deep narrow slots and holes
✓ Profiling and odd shape contouring
✓ Multiple hole drilling
✓ Trepanning
✓ Broaching
✓ Deburring, grinding
✓ Honing

UNIT-5

CHEMICAL MACHINING

INTRODUCTION: Chemical machining (CHM) is the stock removal process for the
production of desired shapes and dimensions through selective or overall removal of material
by controlled chemical attack with acids or alkalis. There are two types of chemical machining
namely 1) chemical blanking which is used for cutting or stamping parts from thin sheet
material and chemical contour machining or chemical milling for the selective or overall
material removal a thick material. The CHM Process is employed where blanking or metal
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

removal is difficult or impractical by the conventional machining process because of material

hardness, brittleness, size of part ,complexity of shape or the thinness of part.

Elements of process: Basically there are two elements of the process

1. Resist or maskants.

2. Enchants

Resists (Mask ants):There are three types of resists: cut and peel, photographic and screen
resist.

The cut &peel resists are first applied to the entire part by the spray or dip method .it is then
cut from areas to be etched .This type of mask ant is not used in applications .Where critical
dimensional tolerances are required. The maakan ts currently available including vinyl,
neoprene and butyl based materials

Photographic resists: Produce etchant resistant images by means of Photographic technic.

When exposed through a high content negative the material can be generally produce a +ve or
–ve image of –ve itself. Thjese resists are used for

1. Thin materials to .8mm thick

2. Parts requiring the dimensional tolerances of the enchant resistant image tigher than ± 0.1
mm and upto 1x1.5 m section

Screen resist are materials which can be used on the work piece through silk screening
techniniques. The image accuracies are better than can generally be achieved by other type
maskants.Screnn printing is generally limited to

1. part not larger than 1x1 m

2. Parts having only flts surfaces are simple moderate counters.

3. Parts whre depth of each does not exeed 1.5mm in depth from one side3e. Parts donot
require echant resistant image accuracy greater than ±0.2mm .

The selection of a resist for a chemical maching depends on the following factors.Chemical
resistance require

Nof parts to be produced.

Details or resolution required.

Shape and size of the component.

 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Easy of removal

Economics

CHEMICAL BLANKING:

It is used to mainly on thin sheets. In most applications photo resists( Photo sensitive
masking) is used to define the location on the work piece at which material is to be etched.

Process steps for Chemical Blanking: The principal process steps for chemical balancing by
the photo resist method is described below:

1. Preparation of work piece : The work piece is cleaned, degreased by acid or alkalis. The
cleaned metal is dried and photo resist is applied. It is then dried and cured.

2. Preparation of masters : Masters the tool for chemical blanking consist of the art work and
negatives used to produce the acid resistant image. The art work for the chemical blanking
should be made on dimensionally stable material such as paper, polyester film orglass base
scribing film.

3. Masking with photo resists: Photo resists are applied to the work piece by dipping; whirl
coating or spraying. Whirl coating gives an uniform coating. This is then dried at room
temperature and backed for about 15 min at a temperature of 110° C to remove the residual
solvent. Lower temperature can be used by prolonging the baking time.

4. Etching : Removal of material by etching is done by immersing the work piece prepared
by the above method in a batch containing etchants. The basic purpose of an etchant is to
convert the metal in to metallic salt which can be dissolved in the etchant. Ferric Chloride
solutions are used for chemical blanking of a wide variety of metals. Sodium hydroxide is
used extensively for aluminium and aluminium alloy etching. Propriety additives are used
in specific applications to control foaming or wetting characteristics.

Accuracy of chemical Blanking :

1. In general a tolerance of 10% of sheet thickness can be held in thin sheets.

2. The best tolerance that can be achieved by this process is about ±0.02mm
3. The chief disadvantage in chemical blanking is the undercutting. Undercuts refersonly
to attack just below the resist edge on one size of the cut. This is defined by the etch
factor which is the ratio of depth of cut to the undercut.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

4. Although burrs are not produced in chemical blanking, the edge obtained at the instant
of complete breakthrough may be irregular.

Application of the chemical blanking:

1. One of the major application of chemical blanking is in the manufacture of burr-free,

intricate stampings.
2. Typically chemically blanked parts include laminations for electric motor and magnetic
recording heads, slotted springs disks and gaskets, meter parts, fine screens helicopter
vent screens etc.
3. Bench and automatic equipment are available for both dip and spray etching of parts of
up to 600*600 mm size.

Chemical Milling (contour Machining): Chemical contour machining or etching is used

mainly to produce three-dimensional shapes by selective or overall removal of metal from
relatively large surface areas.

Process steps for Chemical Milling: The process is particularly suitable in machining large
area of complex shapes and sections which are too thin to tolerate the stress of conventional
machining. The procedure for chemical machining is practically same as described in chemical
blanking.

Masking: First the metal work piece is cleaned and coated with a maskant. The mask is then
dried and cured. It is then peeled out of areas where machining is to be done. The desired
thickness is then dissolved by immersion in etching solutions. The is then removed from the
work surfaced. The mask ant is generally applied by dipping, spraying flow coating or
brushing.

Etching: Etching for the chemical countering is done generally by immersion, although
spraying is sometimes used. Step etching is done by repeated cycles of scribing and peeling off
of unwanted mask area followed by etching. Taper machining is done by immersing or
withdrawing the work piece from the etching bath at a controlled slow rate. The positioning
of the work piece immersed in tanks should be such as to prevent trapping of gases which
prevent the chemical attack by enchant and also reduce the heat dissipation. Sometimes it may
be necessary to remove the work piece after partial etching to release the trapped gases. In case
tolerance on the depth to be etched is critical the work immersed for about 80% of the
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

calculated time and then the dimensions are checked. The etching time is recalculated for the
remaining depth and etching is continued.

Process characteristics:

1. Material removal rate: Material removal rate is chiefly dependent on the selected
etchant. However etch ants that remove the metal faster tend to have many side effect
include
a) Reduction in surface finish
b) Increased undercutting
c) Higher heating
d) Greater change of etch rate
e) Attack on bond between mask ant and work piece.

The etch rate generally limited to 0.02-0.04mm/min. Where surface finish and accuracy are not
important, the etch rates as high as 0.1-0.2mm/min have been achieved. In an aircraft industry
the metal removal rate on an aluminium component is reported to be about 140 cm3/min.

2. Accuracy: The undercutting behaviour is simple countering is essentially same as in

chemical blanking (ref fig) Under cut per edge is approximately equal to the depth of
cut.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Each factor in chemical countering is defined as the undercut divided by the depth of cut which
is reverse of that defined in chemical blanking. Allowance for undercut is made in the design
itself. With optimum time, temperature and solution, accuracies of the range of
±0.01mm can be achieved on relatively shallow depth of cut.

Surface finish: Initial surface waviness and defects are not greatly altered in countering most
metals, but may be smoothened out to a certain extent. The quality of finish is lower for
extrusion, forging and castings. The surface finish obtained may be around 5 micro meters.
Aluminium alloys show better surface finish of 1.6 micro meter.

Hydrogen Embrittilement: It may owing to absorption of hydrogen in chemical machining in

some metals. Aluminium alloys are not subjected to hydrogen embritterment. Considerable
care should taken to avoid hydrogen embritterment in steel, stainless steel, copper alloys and
nickel alloys. If hydrogen embrittlement occurs it can be overcome by heating the work piece
around 120°C for 1-4 hours. The surface produced by the CHM process are other-wise stress-
free and show no thermal effect.

Application:

Chemical machining has been applied successfully in many cases where the depth of material
removal is critical to a few microns and the tolerances are close. The process is usefully applied
to:

1. Removes metal from a portion or the entire of formed or irregularly shaped parts,
such as forgings, casting, extrusions or formed wrought stock.
2. Reduce web thickness below practical machining, forging, casting or forming limits
3. Taper sheets and pre-formed shapes
4. Produce stepped webs
5. Engraving on any metal piece.
 NTM, Course Code: 18ME641

Advantages: The advantages of this process are:

1. Several parts can be machined simultaneously

2. Machined or extruded parts may be reduced on selected areas or all
over by CHM toprovide web action that are thinner than those
obtainable by conventional methods.
3. Casting may be designed uniformly oversized, heat treated with little
or no wrap ageand then chemically machined to achieve final desired
dimensions.
4. Extrusions, forgings, castings, formed sections and deep drawn parts
can be lightenedconsiderably by CHM

Disadvantages of CHM:

1. Metal Removal rate is slow

2. Metal thicker than 2mm cannot be usually machined.
3. High operation skill is required
4. Corrosive enchant damages the equipment.
 Module 4
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Introduction
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-traditional
machining processes. The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such
as metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilises thermoelectric
process to erode undesired materials from the workpiece by a series of discrete electrical sparks
between the workpiece and the electrode. A picture of EDM machine in operation is shown in
Figure 1 (a).

Fig. 1 (a) Electrical Discharge Machining Equipment

The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove the
softer material whereas non-traditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark
or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shape. So, the hardness
of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process. A schematic of an EDM
process is shown in Figure 1 (b), where the tool and the workpiece are immersed in a dielectric
fluid. EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a
capacitor bank, across a small gap between the tool (cathode) and the workpiece (anode)
typically in the order of 50 volts/10amps.
 Fig. 1 (b) Schematic diagram of Electrical Discharge Machining

EDM – Components
The main components in EDM:
Electric power supply
Dielectric medium
Work piece & tool
Servo control unit.

EDM – Working Principle

It is a process of metal removal based on the principle of material removal by an
interrupted electric spark discharge between the electrode tool and the work piece. In EDM, a
potential difference is applied between the tool and workpiece. The work piece and tool are
electrically connected to a DC power supply. The current density in the discharge of the channel
is of the order of 10000 A/cm2 and power density is nearly 500 MW/cm2. A gap, known as
SPARK GAP in the range, from 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm is maintained between the work piece
and the tool. Dielectric slurry is forced through this gap at a pressure of 2 kgf/cm2 or lesser.
 Both tool and work material are to be conductors. The tool and work material are
immersed in a dielectric medium. Generally, kerosene or deionised water is used as the
dielectric medium. A gap is maintained between the tool and the workpiece. Depending upon
the applied potential difference (50 to 450 V) and the gap between the tool and workpiece, an
electric field would be established. Generally, the tool is connected to the negative terminal
(cathode) of the generator and the workpiece is connected to positive terminal (anode).
As the electrons get accelerated, more positive ions and electrons would get generated
due to collisions. This cyclic process would increase the concentration of electrons and ions in
the dielectric medium between the tool and the job at the spark gap. The concentration would
be so high that the matter existing in that channel could be characterised as “plasma”. The
electrical resistance of such plasma channel would be very less. Thus, all of a sudden, a large
number of electrons will flow from tool to job and ions from job to tool. This is called avalanche
motion of electrons. Such movement of electrons and ions can be visually seen as a spark.
Thus, the electrical energy is dissipated as the thermal energy of the spark. The high-speed
electrons then impinge on the job and ions on the tool. The kinetic energy of the electrons and
ions on impact with the surface of the job and tool respectively would be converted into thermal
energy or heat flux. Such intense localized heat flux leads to extreme instantaneous confined
rise in temperature which would be in excess of 10,000 0C. Such localized extreme rise in
temperature leads to material removal. Material removal occurs due to instant vaporization of
the material as well as due to melting. The molten metal is not removed completely but only
partially.

The material removal rate, MRR, in EDM is calculated by the following formula:
40 × I
MRR = 1.23 cm3 /min
Tm
Where, 𝐼 is the current amp,
𝑇𝑚 is the melting temperature of workpiece in 0C

Electrode Material
Electrode material should be such that it would not undergo much tool wear when it is impinged
by positive ions. Thus, the localized temperature rise has to be less by tailoring or properly
choosing its properties or even when temperature increases, there would be less melting.
Further, the tool should be easily workable as intricate shaped geometric features are machined
in EDM.
Thus, the basic characteristics of electrode materials are:
• High electrical conductivity – electrons are cold emitted more easily and there is less
bulk electrical heating.
• High thermal conductivity
• Higher density
• High melting point – high melting point leads to less tool wear due to less tool material
melting for the same heat load
• Easy manufacturability
• Cost – cheap, e.g, Graphite ,Electrolytic oxygen free copper ,Tellurium copper – 99%
Cu +0.5% tellurium, Brass

Mechanism of metal removal

Fundamentally, the electro sparking method of metal working involves an electric erosion
effect which connotes the breakdown of electrode material accompanying any form of electric
discharge. A necessary condition for producing a discharge is the ionization of the dielectric
that is splitting up of its molecules into ions and electrons.
Consider the case of a discharge between two electrodes (tool cathode and work anode)
though a gaseous (figure 2) or liquid medium. As soon as suitable voltage is applied across the
electrodes, the potential intensity of the electric field between them builds up, until at some
predetermined value, the individual electrons break loose from the surface of the cathode and
are impelled towards the anode under the influence of field forces. While moving in the inter-
electrode space, the electrons collide with the neutral molecules of the dielectric, detaching
electrons from them and causing ionization. At some time or the other, the ionization becomes
such that a narrow channel of continuous connectivity is formed. When this happens, there is
a considerable flow of electrons along the channel to the anode, resulting in a momentary
current impulse or discharge. The liberation of energy accompanying the discharge leads to the
generation of extremely high temperature between 80000 and 12,000 0 C, causing fusion or
partial vaporization of the metal and dielectric fluid at the point of discharge. The metal in the
form of liquid drops is dispersed into the space surrounding the electrodes by the explosive
pressure of the gaseous products in the discharge. This results in the formation of a tiny crater
at the point of discharge in the workpiece.
 Fig. 2

Comparatively less metal is eroded from the cathode (tool) as compared to the anode
work due to the following reasons:
1. The momentum with which positive ions strike the cathode surface is much less than
the momentum with which the electron stream impinges on the anode surface.
2. A compressive force is generated on the cathode surface by the spark which helps
reduce tool wear.

Most of the EDM operations were conducted with electrodes (tool and work) immersed in
a liquid dielectric, for example paraffin, and the mechanism of sparking is similar to that
described above except that the dielectric is contaminated with conductive particles.
Furthermore, the particles removed from the electrodes due to the discharge fall in the liquid,
cool down and contaminate the area around the electrodes by forming colloidal suspensions of
metal. These suspensions, along with the products of decomposition of the liquid dielectric are
drawn into the space between the electrodes during the initial part of the discharge process and
are distributed along the electric lines of force, thus forming current carrying bridges.
Discharge then occurs along one of these bridges as a result of ionization, described earlier.
Spark discharge in liquid leads to an intense in ejection of anode particles into the
surrounding space, but discharge in the gas results in the partial transfer and diffusion of
detached anode particles into the surface of the cathode. Both of these phenomena are used in
metal working; the first in performing dimensional working operations, for example, drilling,
die sinking and the preparation of tool, etc; the second is employed in operations connected
with the toughness and building up of surfaces. The spark erosion process must be visualized
as succession of spark discharges distributed over the surface to be eroded. The spark will pass
between the electrode and workpiece at that particular point at which the electric field strength
in the interspace is highest. Thus, successive spark discharges erode the entire surface. A
surface produced by this method has a pitted appearance, the size and depth of the pits are
determined by the spark energy, the nature of workpiece material and the dielectric.

Application of EDM

The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine materials. Parts with
complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging, press tools, extrusion dies, difficult internal
shapes for aerospace and medical applications can be made by EDM process. Some of the
shapes made by EDM process are shown in figure 3.

Fig. 3: Difficult internal parts made by EDM process

Advantages of EDM
The main advantages of DM are:
• By this process, materials of any hardness can be machined;
• No burrs are left in machined surface;
• One of the main advantages of this process is that thin and fragile/brittle components
can be machined without distortion;
• Complex internal shapes can be machined.

Limitations of EDM
The main limitations of this process are:
• This process can only be employed in electrically conductive materials;
 • Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow compared to conventional
machining processes;
• Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur;
• Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.

Dielectric fluids
Dielectric fluids used in EDM process are hydrocarbon oils, kerosene and deionised water. The
functions of the dielectric fluid are to:
• Act as an insulator between the tool and the workpiece.
• Act as coolant.
• Act as a flushing medium for the removal of the chips. The electrodes for EDM process
usually are made of graphite, brass, copper and copper-tungsten alloys.

Design considerations for EDM process are as follows:

• Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided.
• The surface smoothness value should not be specified too fine.
• Rough cut should be done by other machining process. Only finishing operation should
be done in this process as MRR for this process is low.

Wire EDM
EDM, primarily, exists commercially in the form of die-sinking machines and wire-cutting
machines (Wire EDM). The concept of wire EDM is shown in Figure 4. In this process, a
slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path and removes material from the workpiece.
Wire EDM uses electro-thermal mechanisms to cut electrically conductive materials. The
material is removed by a series of discrete discharges between the wire electrode and the
workpiece in the presence of dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each discharge as the
fluid becomes ionized in the gap.
The area where discharge takes place is heated to extremely high temperature, so that
the surface is melted and removed. The removed particles are flushed away by the flowing
dielectric fluids. The wire EDM process can cut intricate components for the electric and
aerospace industries. This non-traditional machining process is widely used to pattern tool steel
for die manufacturing. The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten,
molybdenum. Zinc or brass coated wires are also used extensively in this process. The wire
used in this process should possess high tensile strength and good electrical conductivity.

Fig. 4: Wire erosion of an extrusion die

Wire EDM can also employ to cut cylindrical objects with high precision. The sparked
eroded extrusion dies are presented in Figure 4.

Fig. 5: Sparked eroded extrusion dies

This process is usually used in conjunction with CNC and will only work when a part is to be
cut completely through. The melting temperature of the parts to be machined is an important
parameter for this process rather than strength or hardness. The surface quality and MRR of
the machined surface by wire EDM will depend on different machining parameters such as
applied peak current, and wire materials.
 PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)
Introduction
A plasma is defined as a superheated, electrically ionized gas. Plasma Arc Cutting(PAC) uses
a plasma stream operating at temperatures in the range from 10,000 to 14,000 ºC to cut metal
by melting. The cutting action takes place by directing the high velocity plasma stream at the
work, thus melting it and blowing the molten metal through the kerf. Plasma is encountered in
electrical discharges, such as fluorescent tubes and electric arcs, lightning, high temperature
combustion flames and the sun. Most application of PAC involve cutting of flat metal sheets
and plates. Operations include hole piercing and cutting along a defined path. It was initially
employed to cut metals that are difficult to machine by conventional methods. However, in
recent years, PAC has also been used to cut plain carbon steel, stainless steel and aluminium.

Working Principle:
When heated to elevated temperatures, gases turn into a distinctly different type of matter,
which is plasma. When gases are heated by an applied electric field, an igniter supplies the
initial electrons, which accelerate in the field before colliding and ionizing the atoms. The free
electrons, in turn, get accelerated and cause further ionization and heating of the gases. The
avalanche continues till a steady state is obtained in which the rate of production of the free
charges is balanced by recombination and loss of the free charges to the walls and electrodes.
The actual heating of the gas takes place due to the energy liberated when free ions and
electrons recombine into atoms or when atoms recombine into molecules.

Types of Plasma Arc Cutting system

There are different types of plasma arc cutting operations are here. So there are 2 main
configurations are there.
• non-transferred mode,
• transfer mode

So, this plasma gas is flowing surrounding this cathode. So, this surrounding this cathode
this plasma gas is coming and it is passing, this high velocity plasma gas is passing through
this nozzle here. So, it is passing through the nozzle. When it is passing through this nozzle, it
is ionized, this plasma gas high pressurized, high velocity plasma gas is ionized and using this
non-transferred mode any kind of material whether it is electrically conducting or electrically
non-conducting, any kind of material can be cut or machined. So, this non-transferred arc, arc
between electrode and nozzle so this is arc is generated between this electrode and this nozzle.
So here electrode this cathode and nozzle is connected to the anode and electrothermal
efficiency of this kind of non-transferred arc is 65 to 70%. So it has a very low efficiency, low
efficiency than this transferred mode. So, ionizes high velocity gas streaming towards the
workpiece when it is passing through this cathode or electrode and the nozzle so high velocity
plasma jet is actually here, it is ionizes. So, workpiece conductivity is not a constant. So any
kind of material, any kind of workpiece material, whether it is electrically conducting or non-
conducting, any kind of material can be cut by this plasma, non-transferred mode of plasma
arc cutting operation.
But in this transferred mode you can see here this is the electrode here and this positive
terminal is connected to the workpiece. So here the main constant is that this workpiece should
be electrically conducting material. So, this kind of transferred mode can be used only for
electrically conducting mode of electrically conducting workpiece material. So here plasma
gas is coming surrounding this electrode and while it is passing through this so it is ionized
here in this zone it is ionized while it is passing through this nozzle it is ionized. So electrical
efficiency, electrothermal efficiency of this kind of transfer mode, it is higher than this non-
transfer mode, here it is 85 to 90% electrothermal efficiency for transferred mode or plasma
arc nozzle. So arcing is generated between the electrode and the workpiece and arc heats of
this coaxial-flowing gas so this is coaxial flowing plasma gas okay so maintains it in a plasma
state. So here this workpiece is electrically conducting. So, these are the 2 modes arc mode,
one is the non-transferred and second one is the transferred arc mode.

Elements of PAM
Elements of Plasma Arc system are
power supply
Gas supply
Cooling water system
Control console
Plasma tourch
So first one is the power supply. Second one is the gas supply, plasma gas supply
system, then cooling water system. So you have to cool down this nozzle as well as the plasma
jet you have to cool down and then control console. So, this plasma jet can be controlled by
using a CNC machining system or this working table may be controlled by using a CNC
machining system, CNC system so that any complicated contour can be cut from the workpiece
material and also the fifth one is the fifth one of the plasma arc system, plasma arc cutting
system is the plasma torch.

Mechanism of material removal:

The metal removal in PAM is basically due to the high temperature produced. The heating of
the work piece is, as a result of anode heating, due to direct electron bombardment plus
convection heating from the high temperature plasma that accompanies the arc. The heat
produced is sufficient to raise the work piece temperature above its melting point and the high
velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal away.

Fig. 1: Details for air plamsa torch construction [Benedict, 1987; Courtesy: W.A. Whitney
Corp. Rockford, III]

Process Parameters:
Parameters that govern the performance of PAM can be divided into three categories:
 1. Those associated with the design and operation of the torch – electrical power delivered,
the gases used to form the plasma, the flow rate of the gases through the torch, the
orifice diameter through the nozzle duct.
2. Those associated with the physical configuration of the set up – torch standoff, angle to
the work, depth of cut, feed into the work and speed of the work toward the torch.
3. Environment in which the work is performed – cooling that is done on the bar, any
protective type of atmosphere used to reduce oxidation for the exposed high
temperature machined surface and any means that might be utilized to spread out or
deflect the arc and plasma impingement area.

Comparison between Gas cutting and PAM

Gas Cutting PAM
1.Oxidation of the work piece melted 1. Plasma is generated by subjecting a volume of
generates the heat to melt the material for (e.g) gas to electron bombardment of an electric arc.
in cutting steel, fuel The anode heating due to direct electron
gas is used to heat it to 7600-8700C bombardment plus convective heating
at while steel reacts rapidly with oxygen to form from the high temp plasma raises the
iron oxide. The heat material to the molten point and the
generated by the burning iron is high velocity gas stream effectively
sufficient ot melt the iron oxide. blows the material away.

Oxy-fuel gas cutting is mostly Because of the high temp involved,

limited to only ferrous metal especially plain the process can be used on almost all
carbon steels. material including those white are resistant to oxy-
fuel gas cutting.

Cutting speed are lower for (e.g) in Cutting speeds are higher and leave a narrower
cutting mild steel 19mm thick can be kerf. They can cut mild steel 19mm thick at the
cut at 500 mm /min. rate of 1775mm /min.

Operating costs are higher Operating costs are lower. Ratio of

savings in favor of PAM is about 3:1
Limited to the max. temperature of Seems to be unlimited. The greater
the chemical reaction (burning) the power used, the greater the volume of kerf
material that can be removed.
Cost of equipment is lower. High initial cost of the equipment. Surfaces cut by
Surfaces are less smooth than plasma torch are
those cut by PAM smoother but the edges are rounded.

Advantages
• The main advantage of PAM is speed. For example, mild steel of 6mm thick can be cut
at 3m/min.
• The plasma arc can be used to cut any metal or even to non-conducting materials like
concrete etc., since it is primarily a melting process
• Due to high speed of cutting the deformation of sheet metals is educed while the width
of the cut is minimum.
• Owing to the high productivity of the plasma arc cutting coupled with the tendency to
use cheap and easily available plasma-forming media (air, water, ammonia etc.,), PAC
is finding ever increasing application.
• Smooth cuts free from contaminants are obtained in the process.
• Profile cutting of metals especially of stainless steel and aluminium can be very easily
done by PAM.
• Operating costs are less when compared to oxy-fuel torch.
• Can be automated

Limitations
• The main disadvantage of PAC is the high initial cost of the equipment. However, it
can be made economical, if the quantity involved is large and the thickness is up to
50mm.
• Well-attached drops on the underside of the cut can be a problem and there will be heat
affected zone (HAZ). The depth of HAZ depends on the material and its thickness.
• Smoke and noise.
• Sharp corners are difficult to produce because of the wide diameter of the plasma
stream.
• Burr is often produced.
 • Taper on the work-piece may occur

Applications
• Chiefly used to cut stainless steel and aluminium alloys. It is preferred to oxy-fuel
cutting because it produces comparatively smoother cuts and is free from contamination
Other metals which are resistant to oxy-fuel cutting and hence cut by PAC are
magnesium, titanium, copper, nickel and alloys of copper and nickel.
• PAC can be used for stack cutting, plate beveling, shape cutting and piercing.
• It can also be used for underwater cutting.
• The plasma jets are used for welding materials like titanium, stainless steel etc.,
• Plasma arc is used for depositing filler metal on surface to obtain desired properties
like corrosion resistance, wear resistance, toughness or anti-friction properties – Plasma
arc surfacing.
• The plasma arc can also be used for spraying a prepared surface of the base material
with droplets of molten metal to obtain a surface of required thickness.
 Module 5

Laser–Beam Machining (LBM)

Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-
energy, coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of
metallic and non-metallic workpieces. Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and
mark. LBM is particularly suitable for making accurately placed holes. A
schematic of laser beam machining is shown in Figure 1.
Different types of lasers are available for manufacturing operations which are as
follows:
• CO2 (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas laser that emits light in the
infrared region. It can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave mode.
• Nd:YAG: Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet (Y3Al5O12)
laser is a solid-state laser which can deliver light through a fibre-optic
cable. It can provide up to 50 kW power in pulsed mode and 1 kW in
continuous-wave mode.

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of Laser beam machining schematic

Laser beam cutting (drilling)
In drilling, energy transferred (e.g., via a Nd:YAG laser) into the workpiece melts
the material at the point of contact, which subsequently changes into a plasma
and leaves the region.
• A gas jet (typically, oxygen) can further facilitate this phase transformation
and departure of material removed.
• Laser drilling should be targeted for hard materials and hole geometries
that are difficult to achieve with other methods.
A typical SEM micrograph hole drilled by laser beam machining process
employed in making a hole is shown in fig. 2.

Figure 2: SEM micrograph hole drilled in 250 micro meter thick Silicon Nitride
with 3rd harmonic Nd: YAG laser

Laser beam cutting (milling)

• A laser spot reflected onto the surface of a workpiece travels along a
prescribed trajectory and cuts into the material. Continuous-wave mode
(CO2) gas lasers are very suitable for laser cutting providing high-average
power, yielding high material-removal rates, and smooth cutting surfaces.
Advantage of laser cutting
• No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move any path.
• The process is stress less allowing very fragile materials to be laser cut
without any support.
• Very hard and abrasive material can be cut.
• Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process.
• It is a cost effective and flexible process.
• High accuracy parts can be machined.
• No cutting lubricants required
• No tool wear
• Narrow heat effected zone

Limitations of laser cutting

• Uneconomic on high volumes compared to stamping
• Limitations on thickness due to taper
• High capital cost
• High maintenance cost
• Assist or cover gas required

Applications
• LBM can make very accurate holes as small as 0.005 mm in refractory
metals ceramics, and composite material without warping the workpieces.
This process is used widely for drilling and cutting of metallic and non-
metallic materials.
• Laser beam machining is being used extensively in the electronic and
automotive industries.
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Introduction
In electron beam machining process there is a bombardment of high velocity
stream of electrons on the work-piece surface so this electrons are bombarded on
the work piece surface with a very high velocity, around 66% velocity of the
sunlight so because of this bombardment of electrons on the work piece surface
the materials into a small area on the work piece surface it melts and vaporizes
and temperature rises to a very high temperature. So material on the work piece
surface melts and vaporizes and machining is going on. So this process actually
it is used for machining thousands of holes on a thin sheet which is used in
aerospace industry, food processing industry, cloth industries and very high
aspect ratio for making of very high aspect ratio holes, thousands of holes on a
work piece surface irrespective of the material property like metallurgical
property, mechanical property of the material. So this material maybe electrically
conducting or electrically nonconducting or maybe ceramics, metals, or any kind
of metal, any kind of ceramics it works. So here there is a filament which is heated
with a very high temperature. So because of this heating of this filament so
electrons emanates from that cathode, cathode filament or these filament may be
heated from a radiation from a another body, from the radiation from a another
body on a solid block of cathode, on a solid block of filament also it can be
generated. So these electrons emits from the cathode, cathode filament and it
passes through a magnetic lens to coincide to concentrate or to reduce the
diameter of the electron beam and it bombards on the work piece surface.

Principle
When the high velocity beam of electrons strikes the workpiece, its kinetic
energy is converted into heat. This concentrated heat raises the temperature of
workpiece material and vaporizes a small amount of it, resulting in removal of
material from the workpiece.

Types of EBM

Electron beam machining process there are 2 types of methods are there. One is
the thermal type. Another one is the non-thermal type. So, in non-thermal type
this electron beams are used for generating chemical reactions. So, for generating
chemical reactions the electron beams are used.
In thermal type this cathode is heated to a very high temperature. So, this
stream of large number of electrons comes as a small diameter beam, electron
beam. So, this stream of large number of electrons emits from the cathode, from
a heated cathode. It comes out as a small diameter beam. So, it moves towards
the workpiece with a very high velocity and it bombards, machining is going on
due to the bombardment of these electrons on a very small localized area. So, as
it is bombarded on a very small localized area, huge amount of temperature is
generated on the workpiece surface. So, machining is going on due to the melting
and vaporization of this material from the workpiece surface from a much-
localized area.
Types of EBM process
The following two methods are used in EBM process.
1. Machining inside the vacuum chamber
2. Machining outside the vacuum chamber

Equipment and working of EBM

Fig. 1 below shows the schematic representation of an electron beam gun, which
is the heart of any electron beam machining facility. The basic functions of any
electron beam gun are to generate free electrons at the cathode, accelerate them
to a sufficiently high velocity and to focus them over a small spot size. Further,
the beam needs to be manoeuvred if required by the gun. The cathode as can be
seen in Fig. is generally made of tungsten or tantalum. Such cathode filaments
are heated, often inductively, to a temperature of around 2500 0C. Such heating
leads to thermo-ionic emission of electrons, which is further enhanced by
maintaining very low vacuum within the chamber of the electron beam gun.
Moreover, this cathode cartridge is highly negatively biased so that the thermo-
ionic electrons are strongly repelled away from the cathode. This cathode is often
in the form of a cartridge so that it can be changed very quickly to reduce down
time in case of failure.

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of Electron Beam Machining

Just after the cathode, there is an annular bias grid. A high negative bias is applied
to this grid so that the electrons generated by this cathode do not diverge and
approach the next element, the annular anode, in the form of a beam. The annular
anode now attracts the electron beam and gradually gets accelerated. As they
leave the anode section, the electrons may achieve a velocity as high as half the
velocity of light. The nature of biasing just after the cathode controls the flow of
electrons and the biased grid is used as a switch to operate the electron beam gun
in pulsed mode After the anode, the electron beam passes through a series of
magnetic lenses and apertures. The magnetic lenses shape the beam and try to
reduce the divergence. Apertures on the other hand allow only the convergent
electrons to pass and capture the divergent low energy electrons from the fringes.
This way, the aperture and the magnetic lenses improve the quality of the electron
beam.
Then the electron beam passes through the final section of the electromagnetic
lens and deflection coil. The electromagnetic lens focuses the electron beam to a
desired spot. The deflection coil can manoeuvre the electron beam, though by
small amount, to improve shape of the machined holes.
Generally, in between the electron beam gun and the workpiece, which is
also under vacuum, there would be a series of slotted rotating discs. Such discs
allow the electron beam to pass and machine materials but helpfully prevent metal
fumes and vapour generated during machining to reach the gun. Thus, it is
essential to synchronize the motion of the rotating disc and pulsing of the electron
beam gun.
Electron beam guns are also provided with illumination facility and a
telescope for alignment of the beam with the workpiece. Workpiece is mounted
on a CNC table so that holes of any shape can be machined using the CNC control
and beam deflection in-built in the gun.
One of the major requirements of EBM operation of electron beam gun is
maintenance of desired vacuum. Level of vacuum within the gun is in the order
of 10-4 to 10-6 Torr {1 Torr = 1mm of Hg.} Maintenance of suitable vacuum is
essential so that electrons do not lose their energy and a significant life of the
cathode cartridge is obtained. Such vacuum is achieved and maintained using a
combination of rotary pump and diffusion pump. Diffusion pump, as shown in
Fig. 1 is attached to the diffusion pump port of the electron beam gun.
Diffusion pump is essentially an oil heater. As the oil is heated the oil vapour
rushes upward where gradually converging structure as shown in 1 is present. The
nozzles change the direction of motion of the oil vapour and the oil vapour starts
moving downward at a high velocity as jet. Such high velocity jets of oil vapour
entrain any air molecules present within the gun. This oil is evacuated by a rotary
pump via the backing line. The oil vapour condenses due to presence of cooling
water jacket around the diffusion pump.
Mechanics of EBM or Material Removal Rate (MRR) in EBM
Electrons are the smallest stable elementary particles with a mass of
9.109 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 with a negative charge 1.602 × 10−19 coulomb. If it is
assumed that the initial velocity of emitting electrons to be negligible then the
electron velocity at the striking is given as,
𝑉𝑠 = 600√𝐸𝑠 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
Where, 𝐸𝑠 – Voltage of the electric field, volt
The power of the electron beam is given by
𝑃𝑏 = 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑏 watss
Where, 𝐼𝑏 - Beam current, amp
The electron beam pressure is given by,
𝐹𝑏 = 0.34 × 𝐼𝑑 √𝐸𝑠 , dyne/cm2
Where, 𝐼𝑑 – current density, A/cm2
The thermal velocity acquired by an electron is given by,
2𝐾𝜃
𝑉𝑎 = √ m/s
𝑀𝑎

Where, 𝐾 – Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K/atom

𝜃 – temperature raised, K
𝑀𝑎 – Mass of one atom of the workpiece, kg

Electron Beam Process – Parameters

The machining characteristics in Electron Beam Machining, are:
Accelerating voltage 50 to 200 KV
Beam currents 100 to 100 𝜇𝑚
Electron Velocity 1.6 × 108 m/s
Power density 6500 billion W/mm2
Medium Vacuum (10-5 to 10-6 mm of Hg)
Workpiece material All materials
 Depth of cut Upto 6.5 mm
Material removal rate Upto 40 mm3/s
Specific power consumption 0.5 to 50 KW

As has already been mentioned in EBM the gun is operated in pulse mode.
This is achieved by appropriately biasing the biased grid located just after the
cathode. Switching pulses are given to the bias grid so as to achieve pulse duration
of as low as 50 μs to as long as 15 ms. Beam current is directly related to the
number of electrons emitted by the cathode or available in the beam. Beam
current once again can be as low as 200 μamp to 1 amp. Increasing the beam
current directly increases the energy per pulse. Similarly increase in pulse
duration also enhances energy per pulse. High energy pulses (in excess of 100
J/pulse) can machine larger holes on thicker plates.
The energy density and power density is governed by energy per pulse
duration and spot size. Spot size, on the other hand is controlled by the degree of
focusing achieved by the electromagnetic lenses. A higher energy density, i.e.,
for a lower spot size, the material removal would be faster though the size of the
hole would be smaller. The plane of focusing would be on the surface of the
workpiece or just below the surface of the workpiece. This controls the kerf shape
or the shape of the hole as schematically shown in Fig. 2.
 Fig. 2: Typical kerf shape of electron beam drilled hole

As has been indicated earlier, the final deflection coil can manoeuvre the electron
beam providing holes of non-circular cross-section as required.
The parameters which have significant influence on the beam intensity and
metal removal rate are given below:
1. Control of current
2. Control of spot diameter
3. Control of focal distance of magnetic lens.

1. Control of current
The heated tungsten filament cathode emits electrons depending upon the
thermionic emission capability of the filament. It is given by Richardson-
Dushman equation.
𝐸𝑊
2 −( 𝐾𝑇 )
𝐽= 𝐴𝑇 𝑒
Where, 𝐽 – Current density of the emoted current (amp/cm2),
 𝑊 – work function of the material of the filament (volts),
𝑇 – Absolute temperature of the filament (K),
𝐸 – Electron charge (coulomb),
𝐾 – Boltzmann constant (1.3 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾), and
𝐴 – Constant [120 amp/cm2 degree2 )

The above-mentioned equation is valid only when the tungsten filament (cathode)
is in free space. But in the presence of electric field around the filament, alters
this current density very much. The grid bias voltage is used to control the beam
current. The more negative grid with respect to the cathode, restriction of electron
emission will be more.

2. Control of spot diameter

The diameter of the spot depends upon beam current, accelerating voltage,
magnetic lines, distance between gun and work etc. The most important three
factors which contribute to change in spot diameter are given below.

(i) Effect of thermal velocities: We know that, different electrons

converging at different points along the longitudinal axis of the beam.
So, the spot size will get spread out and the minimum spot diameter is
given by,

2𝑟𝑐 𝑥 𝐾𝑇
𝛿𝐷𝑡 = ×√
𝑟𝑖 𝐸𝑉

Where, 𝛿𝐷𝑡 – minimum spot diameter,

𝑟𝑐 – Cathode (tungsten filament) spot radius,
𝑟𝑖 – Radius of beam at magnetic lens,
𝑥 – Discharge between gun and workpiece,
𝐸 – Electronic charge,
 𝑉 – Anode voltage,
𝐾 – Boltzmann constant (1.3 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾), and
𝑇 – Absolute temperature of cathode.

(ii) Spherical deviation of the focusing lens: The spherical deviation results
in the marginal rays causing the axis at a different position from the rays. So,
it leads an ideal point image to be confused in a disc whose diameter is given
by,
𝑥
𝛿𝐷𝑠 = 2.5𝑟𝑖3 [ ]
𝑓(𝑆 + 𝐷)2
Where, 𝑆 – Lens pole piece separation of the magnetic lens,
𝐷 – Bore diameter of the magnetic lens, and
𝑓 – Focal length of the magnetic lens.

(iii) Space charge spreading of target: The minimum spot size is limited
when the electrons converging in a conical beam to a point as the target is
subjected to mutual repulsion and the equation is given as
3/2
𝛿𝐷𝑐 = 11.8 × 104 × 𝑥 5/2 𝐼 5/4 𝑉 −15/8 𝑟𝑖
The combined effect of these gives the reduced formula for minimum spot
diameter.

𝛿𝐷 = √𝛿𝐷𝑡2 + 𝛿𝐷𝑠2 + 𝛿𝐷𝑐2

(iii) Control at focal distance of magnetic lens

The focal distance at magnetic lens is given by,
𝑓 25𝑉
=
𝑆 + 𝐷 (𝑁𝑇)2
Where, 𝑉 – Electron accelerating voltage, and
𝑁𝑇 – Amphere turns in the lens winding
Advantages
• EBM provides very high drilling rates when small holes with large aspect
ratio are to be drilled.
• Moreover, it can machine almost any material irrespective of their
mechanical properties. As it applies no mechanical cutting force, work
holding and fixturing cost is very less. Further for the same reason fragile
and brittle materials can also be processed.
• The heat affected zone in EBM is rather less due to shorter pulses.
• EBM can provide holes of any shape by combining beam deflection using
electromagnetic coils and the CNC table with high accuracy.

Limitations
• The primary limitations are the high capital cost of the equipment and
necessary regular maintenance applicable for any equipment using vacuum
system.
• Moreover, in EBM there is significant amount of non-productive pump
down period for attaining desired vacuum.
• However, this can be reduced to some extent using vacuum load locks.
• Though heat affected zone is rather less in EBM but recast layer formation
cannot be avoided.

Applications
• More popular aerospace installations food processing and chemical
clothing
• Hundreds 2000s of holds simple and complex shapely network space
corporation of streets complex shaped difficult to machine material.
 • Used for producing very small size holes like holes in diesel injection
nozzles, Air brakes etc.
• Used only for circular holes.
• Electron beam machining is more popular in aerospace, food processing,
chemical clothing etc.
• It is suitable for drilling of holes on metals such as tungsten, molybdenum.
• It is also used for drilling 1000’s of holes (diameter less than 1mm) in very
thin plates.
• Micro machining operations on workpieces of thin sections.
• Micro drilling operations (upto 0.002mm) for thin orifices, dies for wire
drawing parts of electron microscopes, fibre spinners, injector holes for
diesel engines etc.
• Very effective for machining of metals of low heat conductivity and high
melting point.

Some typical applications (or examples) of EBM are

• Drilling thousands of holes (dia <1mm) in cobalt alloy fibre spinning head
of thickness 5 mm drilling by EBM claimed 100 times faster than EDM.
• Holes in filters and screens – food processing industry
• Fine gas orifice in space nuclear reactor
• Holes in wire drawing dies
• Cooling holes in turbine blades
• Metering holes in injector nozzles of diesel engine.