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HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY [BP201 TP]

RESPIRATION

1. Mechanics and mechanism of respiration

Entire physiology of respiration involves following steps:

1.Breathing or pulmonary ventilation
2.External respiration /Pulmonary gas exchange
3.Transport of O2 to tissue
4.Internal respiration
5.Transport of CO2 from tissue.

Breathing/Pulmonary ventilation:
 It is the exchange of gases between the outside air and the alveoli of the lungs.
 Breathing supplies oxygen to the alveoli, and eliminates carbon dioxide.
 The main muscles involved in breathing are
i. the intercostal muscles and
ii. the diaphragm

Intercostal muscles: There are 11 pairs of intercostal muscles that occupy the spaces
between 12 pairs of ribs.

 They are arranged in two layers, the external and internal intercostal muscles.
 The first rib is fixed.So , when the intercostal muscles contract, they pull other
ribs towards the first rib.
 Owing to the shape and size of ribs, they move outwards when they are pulled
upwards, thereby enlarging the thoracic cavity.

Diaphragm: It is a dome shaped muscular structure that separates the thoracic and
abdominal cavities.

 The intercostal muscles and diaphragm contract simultaneously, enlarging the

thoracic cavity in all directions.
 Breathing depends upon changes in pressure and volume in the thoracic cavity.
 Since air flows from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure,
changing the pressure inside the lungs determines the direction of airflow.
Breathing involves two process:

i. Inspiration
ii. Expiration
Inspiration

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 It takes place when the volume of thoracic cavity is increased and the air
pressure is decreased.
 Simultaneous contraction of the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
expands the thorax.
 As the diaphragm + external intercostals contracts (moves downward) lung
volume increases.
It involves following events:
 First of all, external intercoastal muscle contracts and internal intercoastal
muscles relaxes.
 Due to contraction of external intercoastal muscles, ribs is pulled upward,
resulting in increase in thoracic cavity size
 The thoracic cavity further enlarges due to contraction of diaphragm, lowering
the diaphragm and increases the size of thoracic cavity.
 With increase in size of thorax, lungs expand simultaneously. As lungs
expands, the air pressure is reduced inside, so equalize the pressure,
atmospheric air rushes inside the lungs.
Expiration

 It takes place when the size of thoracic cavity is reduced and air pressure is
increased.

involves following events:

 The internal intercoastal muscle contracts and external intercoastal muscles
relaxes.
 Due to contraction of internal intercoastal muscle, ribs are pulled inward,
resulting in decrease in size of thoracic cavity
 Furthermore the diaphragm is pushed upward due to its relaxation
 With the decrease in size of thoracic cavity, lungs is compressed As lungs is
compressed, pressure increases, so the air is forced

External respiration /Pulmonary gas exchange:

 It is the diffusion of oxygen between alveoli and the blood in pulmonary
capillaries and diffusion of CO2 in opposite direction.
 The medulla oblongata in the brain sends impulses to the central nervous
system. The central nervous system relays it to the diaphragm, which pulls away
from the lungs, allowing the lungs to expand.
 The alveolar wall is one-cell thick and is surrounded by many tiny capillaries
through which beta haemoglobin containing carbon dioxide enters the lungs.
This carbon dioxide is exchanged with oxygen in the lungs by diffusion. The
oxygenated haemoglobin is called alpha haemoglobin.

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Internal respiration
 Internal respiration or systemic gas exchange is the process by which the gases
in the air that have already been drawn into the lungs by external respiration are
exchanged with gases in the blood or tissues to remove carbon dioxide from the
blood and replace it with oxygen.
 Thus, it is the exchange of gases by diffusion between blood capillaries and
cells of the tissues
 Internal respiration is the gas exchange down the concentration gradient.
 The oxygen-containing alpha-haemoglobin cells diffuse through the veins and
capillaries of organs, muscle cells and skin cells.
 The body cells then take in oxygen molecules and the alpha cells turn into beta
cells, which again return back to the lungs to continue the cycle

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2. What is external and internal respiration? Explain with diagram.

External Respiration = Lungs Pulmonary Capillaries.

Internal Respiration = Systemic capillaries Blood tissues.

3. Discuss about control of respiration.

 Control of respiration is normally involuntary. Voluntary control is exerted
during activities such as speaking and singing but is overridden if blood CO2
rises(hypercapnia).
 Respiratory center is in the brain stem.

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 Hence specific areas of brain stimulate the contraction of the diaphragm and
intercostal muscles.
 It causes rhythmic breathing pattern of inspiration and expiration.
 Respiration is regulated by:
i. Respiratory centre
ii. Chemoreceptors
A. The respiratory centres include the following:
I. Medullary Inspiratory centre
i. Ventral respiratory group/Expiratory centre- regulate exhalation.
The stimulation of this centre causes contraction of expiratory
muscles and expiration.
ii. Dorsal respiratory group/ Inspiratory centre- regulates
inspiration.
Stimulation of this centre causes contraction of inspiratory
muscles and prolonged inspiration
II. Pons
i. Pneumotaxic centre- it sends inhibitory impulses to the
inspiratory centre.
 It controls both the rate and pattern of breathing.
 The pneumotaxic centre can send neural signals to reduce the
duration of inspiration, thereby affecting the rate of respiration.
 The actions of this centre prevent the lungs from over-inflating.
 It also regulates the amount of air that the body takes in, in a
single breath.
 If this centre is absent, it increases the depth of breathing and
decreases the respiratory rate. It performs the opposite function
of the Apneustic centre.

ii. Apneustic centre-

It sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area to accelerate the
depth of inspiration. It is also responsible to decrease the duration of
inspiration.

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Chemoreceptors
 These are receptors that respond to changes in the partial pressure of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid.
 They are located
i. Centrally
ii. Peripherally
Central Chemoreceptors
 They are located on the surface of medulla oblongata and are bathed in CSF.
 When arterial PCO2 rises( hypercapnia) even slightly, the central
chemoreceptors respond by stimulating the respiratory centre- increasing
ventilation of the lungs and reducing arterial PCO2
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
 These are situated in the arch of aorta and in the carotid bodies.
 They are more sensitive to small rise in arterial PCO2 than to small decrease in
arterial PO2 levels.
 Nerve impulses generated are conveyed by glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves
to the medulla and stimulate the respiratory centre.
 The rate and depth of breathing are then increased.
An increase in blood acidity(decreased pH or raised [H+]) stimulates peripheral
chemoreceptors, resulting in increased ventilation , increased CO2 excretion and
increased blood pH

• Other factors that influence respiration:

i. Speech, singing
ii. Emotional displays eg: crying, laughing, fear

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iii. Drugs , eg: sedatives , alcohols

iv. Sleep
Temperature: In fever, respiration is increased due to increased metabolic rate ,
while in hypothermia it is depressed

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