READING AND WRITING

GRADE 11

LESSON 1: THE NATURE OF READING

DEFINITION OF READING ACCORDING TO EXPERTS

1. Literacy practices are almost always fully integrated with, interwoven into, wider
practices that involves talk, interaction, values, and beliefs. – James Gee
2. Reading is asking questions of printed text. And reading comprehension becomes a
matter of getting your questions answered. – Frank Smith
3. Reading is an interaction between the reader and the written language, through
which the reader attempts to reconstruct the message from the writer. – W.S. Gray
4. Reading is a dynamic process in which the reader interacts with the text to construct
meaning. Inherent in constructing meaning is the reader’s ability to activate prior
knowledge, use reading strategies, and adapt to the reading situation. – Ma. Cecilia
Crudo
5. Reading, after a certain age, diverts the mind too much from its creative pursuits.
Any man who reads too much and uses his brain too little falls into lazy habits of
thinking. -Albert Einstein
OLD AND NEW SCHOOL DEFINITIONS OF READING

OLD SCHOOL DEFINITION OF READING

 “Learning to read means learning to pronounce words, to identify words and get
their meaning and to bring meaning to a text in order to get meaning from it.”
(Bernardo, 2009, p.2)

NEW SCHOOL DEFINITION OF READING

 “Reading is a very complex process that requires a great deal of active
participation on the part of a reader. It is also an interactive process among the
reader, the writer and the text. It is a human act… in which a reader
communicates with the writers, the texts, and their imagined or real personas,
phenomena, circumstances or events” (Bernardo, 2009, p.2)
 IMPORTANCE OF READING

Reasons why reading is important

1. Expose Yourself to New Things

2. Self-Improvement
3. Improve Understanding
4. Preparation to Action
5. Gain Experience from Other People
6. Tools of Communicating
7. Connecting Your Brain
8. Boost Imagination and Creativity

5 STAGES TO THE READING PROCESS (According to Tompkins)

1. PREREADING
 is the process of skimming a text to locate key ideas before carefully
reading a text (or a chapter of a text) from start to finish  (Nordquist 2019)
 It refers to all the things a reader does before reading in order to engage with the
text and increase capacity to understand it.
 THE 4Ps of Prereading: Preview, Prior Knowledge, Predictions, and Purpose
 GOAL: to build connections and make text more comprehensible.
2. READING
 Also known as “While/During Reading”
 It is the stage when the reader is already reading and started interacting with the
text and monitor comprehension- (SEA)
 GOAL: to encourage students initiated reading and increase understanding of
the text.
3. RESPONDING
 is where the students respond to what they read through writing in reading
logs, journals, or grand conversations.
 GOAL: to encourage self-regulatory actions that can be used to facilitate
comprehension.
4. EXPLORING
 is where the readers go back and reread certain things in the text, learn
more vocabulary, participate in lessons, examine the author's craft or identify
memorable quotes/passages.
  GOAL: to personalize learning and deepen our understanding

5. APPLYING

 This is when readers deepen and reflect upon their understandings, and
value the reading experience.
 GOAL: to help readers integrate learning

LEVELS OF COMPREHENSION

1. LITERAL LEVEL
 it is the explicit, most obvious, non-figurative meaning of taking things.
 understanding a text, including facts, ideas, vocabulary, events, and stated
information
 Requires direct answers to questions extracted from a text.
 Serves as a building block to the more advanced levels of comprehension
 It involves getting specific answers to questions or information gathering for
questions that start with “what, where, when, who”.
 Sample Question
o Who took Sandra’s pen?
o What did Sandra do when she realized that her pen was missing?
o Where did Ariel go to live at the end of the story?

2. INTERPRETATIVE LEVEL

 Readers are able to read beyond the literal words on the page and find
understanding
 Reading between the lines
 The information we understand is not found in the text, which requires us to
imagine what a character is feeling or what the author means by words or actions
 Sample Question
o Why did Mike want to be awarded the most productive worker of the
year?
o How did Mike react when he saw that the recognition of the most
productive worker of the year was awarded to Thomas?

3. CRITICAL ANALYSIS LEVEL

 it is the reader’s ability to respond with personal judgments and ideas
about the content of the textbook material, using his or her past knowledge
and thoughts on the subject.
  this level is where the reader tells whether he/she likes or dislikes the thoughts
presented in the story or in the text
 It is where the reader analyzes and make judgements about the behavior of the
characters or the twists of events

4. APPLICATION AND REACTION LEVEL

 Integration of the material to personal experiences
 Reading beyond the line
 Sample Question
o How would you feel if you were in Mike’s shoes and had lost the
recognition award to a colleague at your workplace?
o Do you think awarding the recognition to Thomas instead of Mike
was appropriate?

5. CREATIVE THINKING LEVEL

 make something new”
 Also known as “creation” level
 Create something new out of the idea or thought from the material
 Sample Question
o What could have been the consequence if Mike had been recognized
as the year’s worker instead of Thomas?
 LESSON 2: FORMS OF DISCOURSE AND
SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION

DISCOURSE
 is an orderly and extended expression of connected thought on a subject.
 defined as natural spoken or written language in a context, especially when
complete text are considered
 Any unit of connected speech or writing that is longer than a sentence and
that has a coherent meaning and a clear purpose.

FORMS OF DISCOURSE
1. NARRATIVE
 It is the act or process of telling a story that involves characters, actions, and a
theme.
 Narration involves action, characters, and a theme.
 It can be an incident, anecdote, historical account, autobiography, biography, or
a novel.

Example of Narration

An excerpt The Creation of the World (Genesis 1:1-4 TEV)

In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form
and void, and darkness was over the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over
the face of the waters.
And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. And God saw that the light was
good. And God separated the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the
darkness he called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, the first day.

2. DESCRIPTION
 It uses sensory writing with rich and vivid details that appeal to the man’s five
senses- sight, hear, touch, taste, and smell.
 Figures of speech and adjectives are often used to enhance the sensory
experience of the reader.

Example of Description

Excerpt from the Memoir “Goodnight, Rene”

By Diana R. Agbayani
 The sky was dark, foreboding. A wounded, eagle fell from the sky. Somewhere in the
damp ground was a black leather jacket, a brown wallet, and pair of eyeglasses. Suddenly I
heard sound of the creek. I followed the sound. Then heard my two nieces Yenyen and Nina
sobbing. Then I saw a mangled, human hand filled with blood.
I remember my last conversation with Rene. He said he wanted to try skydiving. And he
did.

3. EXPOSITION
 provides information about one or more topics. It informs, explains, expounds and
interprets
 imparts information, shares ideas and provides explanations and evidences.
 It is a text that is fact-based with the purpose of exposing the truth through a
reliable source.

Example of Exposition

A quasar or quasar is an astronomical source of energies of an electromagnetic order,

including radio frequencies and visible light. Its name is an acronym for “Quasi-Stellar

4. ARGUMENTATIVE
 Also known as persuasive/ persuasion discourse
 persuades reader through proof of the writer’s view
 used with the sole purpose of persuading the audience (hearers or readers) to
either accept or reject opinion
Example of Argumentative

Excerpts from “Browbeating the Supreme Court” President Aquino’s performance and
trust ratings have plunged to their lowest levels since he took office in 2010 and the
Supreme Court unanimously declared four acts and practices under the administration’s
Disbursement Acceleration Program (DAP) unconstitutional……. These result should be
a wake-up call on the erosion of the President’s popularity, which has been held his
partisan’s as unassailable. Malacañang officials appeared to be in self-delusion when
they claimed the President’s rating would improve following his speech browbeating the
Supreme court. It was a wishful thinking.

TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION

1. BRAINSTORMING
 It is an individual or group activity.
 A method of generating ideas and sharing knowledge to solve a particular
problem or issue.
 5 STRATEGIES UNDER BRANSTORMING
  Cubing
 an idea is examined in 6 distinct viewpoints.
o How to do cubing?
1. describe the topic (what is it)
2. then compare and contrast it (what is it like or unlike?
3. what do you associate it with (what does it remind you of?)
4. analyze it (what are its parts?)
5. apply it (in what ways can it be utilized)
6. argue for or against it (in what way can you support or oppose it)
 Free writing
 It allows us to write without inhibitions.
 You turn off the editor in you and allow the writer in you free.

 Listing
 listing the topics only or keywords.
 Mapping
 also known as webbing or clustering
 it involves writing down ideas, and then making connections by
associating similar ideas with color-coded circles or underlined dominant
themes, or using distinct patterns, and showing the relationship by liking
with lines.

 Researching
 traditional way (going to the library) or modern way (checking or searching
websites in the Internet)
2. GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
 It helps us express our ideas, thoughts, knowledge, concepts, and the
relationship between them in a coherent manner using visual symbols.
 3 TYPES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
 Basic Outline- It ensures that every point the writer makes has sufficient
supporting details.
Example:
Thesis Statement or Major Idea
I. Topic Sentence or Main Idea
A. Supporting Detail
1. Example
a. detail
b. detail
2. Example
B. Supporting Detail
 Venn Diagram- It helps to visually represent the similarities and differences
between the two concepts, people, events, or objects

 Topical organizer- It allows writers to map out their ideas. It can be

hierarchical or bubble
o Hierarchical Topical Organizer- It visualizes the elements of a
system, organization, or a concept.

o Bubble Topical Organizer- It illustrates a main concept or idea in a

central bubble then using lines to connect to more bubbles with
related concept.
3. TOPIC OUTLINE
 Topic outline uses phrases only. There are no complete sentences and verbs.
However, verbals may be used.
Example:
The Process of Candle Making
I. Preparing the Supplies
A. Purchasing the materials
B. Making the wicks
C. Preparing the Molds
II. Making the Candles
A. Melting the wax and the paraffin
B. Putting color
C. Pouring the Wax
D. Letting the wax harden
III. Finishing the candles
A. Inserting the wicks
B. Trimming the wicks
C. Decorating the candles

4. SENTENCE OUTLINE
 It provides more information than a topic outline.
 Every idea should be written in a complete sentence.
Example:
The Process of Candle Making
I. The candle maker organizes his supplies.
A. First, he purchases and gathers his materials.
B. Secondly, he makes the wicks.
C. Thirdly, he prepares the candle molds before making the candles.
II. Candle making is a matter of knowing about wax.
A. The candle maker makes the wax and paraffin.
B. Next, he adds colors by using wax crayons.
C. Then, he pours the wax into the molds.
D. Lastly, he lets the wax harden.
III. Finishing the candles is a quick procedure.
A. First, insert the wax.
B. Then, trim the wicks follow by the right length.
C. Lastly, decorate the candles.
____________________________________________________________
LESSON 3: PARAGRAPH AND PATTERNS OF
DEVELOPMENT

PARAGRAPH
 It is a group of sentences that fleshes out or presents a single idea and
strategically organized to maintain a consistent flow.
ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH

1. TOPIC SENTENCE
 tells the reader what the paragraph is all about or the main idea to be specific.
 the “controlling idea” of a paragraph

EXPLICIT TOPIC SENTENCE- expressed or stated; you can find in the paragraph

1. Beginning of a Paragraph

Example:

most vivid memory from childhood is travelling to the top of Mount Banahao. The day we
went up in Banahao is the day that I learned that there can be a surprising difference in
temperature between the ground and the top of a mountain. It was warm on the ground
that day, but it got colder and colder the higher we went up to the mountain. Also, the
lush bushes add color to our journey. Indeed, it is my most unforgettable journey I ever
had.
2. MIDDLE OF A PARAGRAPH

When a camera flash is used in a low-light environment, the subject's eyes may appear red in
the finished photograph. What is known as "red-eye" is the result of light from the flash
reflecting off the pupils of the eyes. The phenomenon of red-eye can be lessened by using the
red-eye reduction feature found on many SLR cameras. This feature activates a lamp which
shines a small light directly into the subject's eyes. When this happens, the diameter of the pupil
is reduced, thus tightening the opening in the iris. Since a smaller pupil means a smaller host
for the reflection, the chances of red-eye occurring are greatly reduced.

3. AT THE END OF A PARAGRAPH

Last year, a cat traveled 130 miles to reach its family, who had moved to another state and had
left their pet behind. Even though it had never been to their new home, the cat was able to track
down its former owners. A dog in my neighborhood can predict when its master is about to have
a seizure. It makes sure that he does not hurt himself during an epileptic fit. Compared to many
animals, our own senses are almost dull.

IMPLIED TOPIC SENTENCE- An implied main idea that is not explicitly stated in a
paragraph but is understood from context.

EXAMPLE A.
College and university sports team have nicknames. Most are common, such as the
Bears, Lions, and Tigers. However, some are unusual. For instance, the University of California
at Irvine is nicknamed “Anteaters”. The University of Washburn’s sports team are called
“Thunderducks”. And perhaps the strangest of all belongs to the University of California at
Santa Cruz. Their nickname is the “Banana Slugs”.

IMPLIED TOPIC SENTENCE: Some College and University sport teams have unusual College
nicknames.

EXAMPLE B.
Sometimes in the evenings, Bruno Mars would sit out in front of the ranch house near
the cattle guard and play music. He would gather across the ditch and listen attentively. He like
to hear songs by Hank Williams, to which he would attempt to sing along by making little
gurgling sounds deep in his throat. Occasionally, he would click his teeth if he played something
with a beat to it.

IMPLIED TOPIC SENTENCE: Bruno Mars is a music lover.

2. SUPPORTING SENTENCES
 give specific or related details relating to the topic sentence or the main idea.
 serve as the body of the paragraph
 organized accordingly through the use of transitional devices

Transitional Devices- words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to
another, from one idea to another, or even from one paragraph to another
My most vivid memory from childhood is travelling to the top of Mount Banahao. The day we
went up in Banahao is the day that I learned that there can be a surprising difference in
temperature between the ground and the top of a mountain. It was warm on the ground that
day, but it got colder and colder the higher we went up to the mountain. Also, the lush bushes
add color to our journey. Indeed, it is my most unforgettable journey I ever had.
3. CONCLUDING SENTENCE
 sums up the ideas presented
 adds a strong ending to a paragraph

EXAMPLE A.
There are three reasons why I prefer walking to other physical activities. One reason is
that walking can be done easily. I can do it anywhere at any time with no need of any
equipment. Also, I prefer walking because it is good for the heart. I do not have to do much
effort while walking. Lastly, I prefer this physical activity because it is safe. It is not as risky as
other physical activities like swimming, racing, or biking. For all these reasons, I consider
walking as the best physical activity of all.

EXAMPLE B.
My most vivid memory from childhood is travelling to the top of Mount Banahao. The day
we went up in Banahao is the day that I learned that there can be a surprising difference in
temperature between the ground and the top of a mountain. It was warm on the ground that
day, but it got colder and colder the higher we went up to the mountain. Also, the lush bushes
add color to our journey. Indeed, it is my most unforgettable journey I ever had.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH

1. UNITY
 the entire paragraph must be unified on its structure and all the sentences within
the paragraph should focus on the topic sentence.
 The following paragraph has unity because its elements are connected to each
other:

Apples make us healthy. They are rich in fiber that reduces the risk of
cardiovascular diseases. They also have vitamin C that boosts the immune system and
helps defend the body from infections and diseases. Lactobacilli, a type of probiotic that
is good for digestion, is another component present in apples. In addition, apples have
potassium that reduces the risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular
complications. Indeed, apples are nutritious and good for our health.

 The next paragraph does not have unity because there are irrelevant or
intervening sentences included.

(1) As you use your calendar to manage your tune, think about how long certain
activities will take. (2) A common mistake is to underestimate the time needed to do
something, even something simple. (3) For example, when you are planning the time
needed to get cash from the cash machine, remember that there may be a line of
people. (4) Last week in line, I met a woman I went to high school with, so we
chatted. (5) It turns out she has two children just the same age as mine. (6) When
you are estimating time for a more complex activity, such as reading a chapter in a
textbook, block out more time than you think you will need. (7) If you finish in less time
than you have allotted, so much the better. (8) One should allow for interruptions
because it is better to allow too much time than too little.

DIGRESSION- is the act of departing from the main subject in speech or writing
to discuss an apparently unrelated topic just like the inclusion of intervening
sentences.
 
2. COHERENCE
 connection of ideas of a paragraph in general through the use of transitional
devices.
 continuity between as well as within the paragraph
 How to achieve coherence?
a. using transitions helps connect ideas from one sentence to the next
 b. ordering thoughts in numerical sequence helps to direct the reader from
one point to the next
c. structuring each paragraph according to one of the following patterns
helps to organize sentences.

Apples make us healthy. They are rich in fiber that reduces the risk of cardiovascular
diseases. They also have vitamin C that boosts the immune system and helps defend the body
from infections and diseases. Lactobacilli, a type of probiotic that is good for digestion, is
another component present in apples. In addition, apples have potassium that reduces the risk
of high blood pressure and cardiovascular complications. Indeed, apples are nutritious and
good for our health.

 Another way to achieve coherence is through Pronoun-Antecedent

Pronoun- a word that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase.
Antecedent- The noun or group of words to which pronoun refers to

EXAMPLE:
The myth of Arachne is amusing. I enjoyed it.
*The antecedent of it is the myth of Arachne.

2. The bystanders see Athena. They watch her at the loom.

*The antecedent of they is bystanders; while her is Athena.

EXAMPLE:
1. Arachne competes with Athena. She weaves successfully.
Can you tell to whom the word she refers?

Revised: Arachne competes with Athena. Athena weaves skillfully.

3. EMPHASIS
 achieved when the important ideas are made to stand
 How to achieve emphasis?
a. emphasis by proportion
b. emphasis by pause
c. emphasis by position
 Another way to achieve is emphasis is through Repetition.
Repetition- a literary device in which a word or phrase is repeated two or more
times.

A. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise
from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now
 is the time to lift our nation from the quicksand of racial injustice to the solid rock of
brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children.

B. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of
hope. With this faith we will be able to transform … our nation … With this faith we will be
able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up
for freedom together.

C. The question we writers are asked most often, the favorite question, is: Why do
you write? I write because I have an innate need to write. I write because I can’t do normal
work as other people do. I write because I want to read books like the ones I write. I write
because I am angry at everyone. I write because I love sitting in a room all day writing. I write
because I can partake of real life only by changing it. I write because I want others, the whole
world, to know what sort of life we lived, and continue to live. I write because I have never
managed to be happy. I write to be happy.

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
 also known as rhetorical modes
 these are the logical arrangement of ideas
 there 8 patterns of development

1. NARRATION
 to tell a story or relate an event
 it shows the sequence of events usually from the beginning to an end
 MOSTLY in chronological, but it can be flashback or in medias res

a. chronological or sequential
I had several frightening experiences on my first night in Tokyo. The first scary
thing happened when I walked into the airport. Even though I have traveled extensively
before, I have always been able to read the signs. This time was different. When I
looked around the airport, I realized that I couldn't even tell where to go because I could
not understand any of the signs. When I finally got through customs, I took a huge bus
to the downtown airport. On the way I saw many soldiers carrying rifles and it made me
nervous. When the bus finally arrived at the downtown airport, I had to look for a taxi.
Because it was now very late, there were only a few around. Finally, I found one and
gave the driver written directions to the convent where I would be staying. The driver
looked angry and I became uneasy again. An hour later we arrived at the convent. The
driver took my bags to the door and knocked loudly, but no one answered. He said
something to me in Japanese which, of course, I didn't understand. Then he pointed to a
telephone nearby and to my purse. I opened it and gave him some money. I waited
nervously while he made a call. A few moments later he took me back to the door of the
convent where Sister Suzanne was now waiting. Her friendly face made me forget the
bad experiences I had had that night.
 b. flashback (analepsis)
Sarah closed her eyes and took a deep breath. It was exactly a year ago today
that she stood in this very same spot, trying to do the very same thing. “How could I be
doing this?” Sarah thought to herself. She took a deep breath and recalled that
embarrassing and humiliating time. She had sung on a stage a million times, but, for
some reason, that night was different. As she gazed out in the crowd, she saw them.
Sarah’s breath had quickened and her heart beat a mile a minute. “I can’t do this,” she
mumbled as she fled the stage. And now, exactly a year later, Sarah stood, ready to
head out on stage. She hoped she was ready.

c. in medias res (English: in the midst of things)

In medias res, (Latin: “in the midst of things”) the practice of beginning an epic or
other narrative by plunging into a crucial situation that is part of a related chain of
events; the situation is an extension of previous events and will be developed in later
action

The Iliad, for example, begins dramatically with the quarrel between Achilles and
Agamemnon during the Trojan War.

Twilight by Stephenie Meyer novel starts in which a young woman, Bella, is

being chased by someone or something. It’s clear that she’s in great peril but we don’t
find out who’s chasing her and whether she will survive the chase until the story's
climax.

2. DESCRIPTION
 to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that
the reader can picture that which is being described
 uses adjectives and vivid sensory description

SENSORY IMAGERY- is a literary device writers employ to engage a reader’s mind on

multiple levels and explores the human senses

a. Visual Imagery- sense of sight

The children dressed in yellow shirts and blue shorts scuttled all over the park running in
each other and giggled upon falling down. Ignoring the soil covering their clothes and knees and
their white socks blackened, the little kids cavorted in the park, their giggles and cheer reached
the ears of the on-lookers.

b. Gustatory Imagery- sense of taste

The Queen let another drop fall from her bottle on to the snow, and instantly there
appeared a round box, tied with green silk ribbon, which, when opened, turned out to contain
several pounds of the best Turkish Delight. Each piece was sweet and light to the very center
and Edmund had never tasted anything more delicious. He was quite warm now, and very
comfortable.

c. Tactile Imagery- sense of touch

His legs ached after climbing so many flights of stairs, and he could feel the flush in his
face. He couldn’t wait to get out of his sticky, sweaty clothes and let the cool, soothing water
wash over him in the shower.

d. Olfactory Imagery- sense of smell

As she entered the warm house, she was welcomed by the scents of hot apple cider
and cinnamon.

e. Auditory Imagery- sense of hearing

As she walked through the wintery woods, her teeth chattered and the leaves
crunched under her feet.

f. Kinesthetic Imagery- sense of movement

She raked her fingers through her hair in an attempt to smooth out the knots.

3. DEFINITION
 gives a complete working definition of a term, concept, or idea
 moves beyond a dictionary definition to deeply examine a word or concept as we
actually use and understand it

Denotation – literal meaning only, usually from dictionary

Example: The teacher walked in the classroom.

Connotation – A word’s emotional meaning; suggestions or associations connected to

a word. It can be positive, negative or neutral
Example: The eerie fog hovered in front of the abandoned house.

 eerie – creates creepy and negative feeling

 hovered – creates negative feeling. it also makes you think that the fog is
lingering somewhere it is not wanted
 abandoned – creates negative feeling. it connotes the idea of being unwanted or
left behind.

Expanded Definition- defines and explains a single term, concept, object, pins down
the meaning of a specific word, or defines an abstract concept, and goes deeper than a
simple dictionary definition. There are 3 on how to expand a definition into a paragraph:
a) Expanding by Giving an Example
 b) Expanding by Comparing and Contrasting
c) Expanding by Describing a Process

4. CLASSIFICATION AND EXEMPLIFICATION

Classification takes one large concept and divide it into individual pieces. You put
items in categories to clarify comparison of items in categories or to divide items by
characteristics

Humans are often harmed by pollution. The presence of the hazardous substances
brought about by these three major types of pollution: land, air and water gravely affect our
health. For instance, a person may acquire skin problems and other deformities from the toxic
wastes present in the land that we live in such as garbage, pesticides, heavy metals and other
chemicals. Air pollution caused by toxic gases, solid and liquid particles or aerosols, and other
hazardous air pollutants adversely contaminate the air that we breathe. Long-term exposure to
air pollutants has been linked with diseases of the heart and lungs, cancers and other health
problems. Lastly, water pollution observed in our primary water sources like oceans, rivers, and
lakes is caused by the presence of industrial wastes, sewage and waste waters, chemical
fertilizer and pesticides to be specific. Infectious diseases can be acquired through
contaminated water and can cause cholera, jaundice, liver damage and stomach illness in
people.

Exemplification uses one or more particular cases, or examples, to illustrate or explain

a general point or an abstract concept. It is used in every kind of writing situation to
explain and clarify, to add interest and to persuade.

The mayor should not be reelected because he has fired two city workers who refused
to contribute to his campaign fund, has put his family and friends on the city payroll and has
used public employees to make improvements to his home.

Transitional Devices: after all, even so, in addition, on the other hand, for example, for
instance
5. COMPARE AND CONTRAST
 organizes ideas based on how events, places, people, or things are similar to or
different from one another
 Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar while contrast in
writing discusses elements or ideas that are different.
 TRANSITIONAL DEVICES: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against,
balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in
contrast, although this may be true
 Crocodiles and Alligators are different species. They don’t belong in the same biological
family. Crocodiles came from the family of Crocodilia while alligators came from the family of
Alligatoridae. In terms of habitat, crocodiles prefer to live in salt water while alligators live in
fresh water like rivers or lakes. Another way to differentiate the two is by looking at the shape of
their snouts. Crocodiles have long pointed V-shaped snouts while alligators have U-shaped
snouts. These features make crocodiles and alligators distinct from each other.

TWO PATTERNS OF COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

A. Opposing or Block Pattern
1. Subject A
a. First characteristic of A
b. Second characteristic of A
c. Third characteristic of A
2. Subject 2
a. First characteristic of B
b. Second characteristic of B
c. Third characteristic of B

B. Alternating Pattern
1. First characteristic
a. Of subject A
b. Of subject B
2. Second characteristic
a. Of subject A
b. Of subject B
3. Third characteristic
a. Of subject A
b. Of subject B

*The sample paragraph above used the alternating pattern.

6. CAUSE AND EFFECT

 explains why something happens or what results a particular event produces
 it can be a) cause to effects or b) effect to causes
 TRANSITIONAL DEVICES: Therefore, so, because, thus, hence, due to,
consequently, as a result, as an effect, for this reason

Regular exercise brings many benefits to your health. First, it improves blood circulation
and can result to a strong heart. Because of these, it reduces the risk of heart disease, high
cholesterol, and diabetes. When you exercise, your bones and muscles will be strengthened
which can slow down the loss of bone density that comes when you age. As a result, it can help
you maintain or increase your muscle mass and strength. Also, regular exercise improves your
mental health and mood. During an exercise, your body releases chemicals that can improve
your mood and make you feel more relaxed. As an effect, it can help you deal with stress and
reduce your risk of depression. These are the benefits that you get when you exercise.

7. PROBLEM-SOLUTION
 clearly identifying a problem and then providing a logical, practical solution for
that problem
 TRANSITIONAL DEVICES: Nowadays, such as/like, for instance, namely, to
sum up, in conclusion, one, second, another, to solve this problem, otherwise

Drug abuse is one of the leading social issues in many countries. This problem has
been the cause of many crimes and health concerns. However, the threat of prohibited drugs
can be fought. One way to solve this is through education. Everyone needs to be educated
about the dangers of using prohibited drugs. People need to be aware of the harmful effects of
these drugs to their health, family, career, and society. Another solution is to increase police
manpower and create effective laws to stop dealers. If the authorities will strictly impose these
laws, this problem will be addressed. Drug abuse is a threat, but if the community and the
government will act together, this problem will be controlled.

8. PERSUASION
 convinces reader to agree to an argument or claim about a particular topic
 TRANSITIONAL DEVICES: Because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously,
evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any
case, that is, not only that, aside from
 3 Techniques in Persuasion
a. Giving Examples
A school bazaar is something you don’t want to miss! Aside from the wonderful
experience, attending it is truly a great help. First, a school bazaar is filled with fun
activities. There are amusing games, great rides, and entertaining attractions! Besides
that, your ticket purchase will help the school. Not only that, but it also gives you a
chance to win fabulous prizes. So, what are you waiting for? Join now and experience
the fun!

b. Using evidences
Aggressive driving is a phenomenon, which has only recently got the public
worried. It should be avoided because it causes crashes, injuries and fatalities. The first
reason why aggressive driving should be avoided is it causes crashes. According to
NHTSC between 78 percent (excessive speed) and 100 percent (improper passing) of
the cases of aggressive driving resulted in traffic crashes and 96 percent of the drivers
cited for “following too closely” or tail gaiting caused crashes as a result of their
aggressive driving. Moreover, “running red light”, “improper passing”, and “overtaking on
the left” topped other categories of aggressive driving in contributing to traffic crashes.
Another reason why aggressive driving should be avoided is it causes injuries. NHTSC
states that the percentages of the injuries caused by aggressive driving are, in almost all
categories of aggressive driving, above 100 percent. Aggressive driving also causes
fatalities. “Overtaking on the left” appears to be the most important contributing factor in
traffic fatalities as it relates to aggressive driving. “Improper lane change”, “running stop
sign”, and “running red light” rank second through four in terms of their contribution to
traffic fatalities. The above evidence shows that aggressive driving causes crash injuries
and fatalities. Hence, aggressive driving should be avoided. Since the opening on the
North-South Highway, the number of kilometers of roads in the country has increased by
one percent while the number of vehicle miles driven has increased by 35 percent. More
cars and more drivers are also on the road leading to more aggressive drivers.

C. Attacking Opposing Views

Some might argue that a dress code would eliminate freedom of expression for
students, but that isn't true. Dress code policies already restrict expression such as the
length of clothing or hair color. If freedom of expression is the argument, then shouldn't
these policies not be allowed either? In addition, students only spend a small portion of
their time in a school building. There is plenty of other time in a student's life where they
can express themselves through their clothing. Finally, many work environments have a
certain expectation for appropriate dress. Having students wear uniforms doesn't
eliminate expression, it prepares students for career expectations. This argument
against uniforms is flawed and not a true reason for negating the possible benefits
school uniforms would bring.
 LESSON 4: EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEANINGS OF A TEXT
CONTEXT OF TEXT DEVELOPMENT

CRITICAL READING

CRITICAL READING refers to a careful, active, reflective, analytic reading. It allows

us to enter a dialogue with the author- and this deepens our understanding of the issue
or topic discussed. It also allows us to monitor our understanding as we read.

 you get to read between and beyond the lines by questioning the material
 is important because it allows you to read and analyze a text critically,
breaking it down into its component parts and assessing its strengths and
weaknesses

To critically read, we need to follow 3 steps of text analysis according to Kurland

(2010)

What a text says

 Identify the main topic of a text

 Use skimming and scanning
 what is the text all about?

Example

There are people who do something good because they want to protect their
wealth; others, because they want to safeguard their name and enhance their
social status. These are the "doo-gooders" We've seen them in reformatories,
orphanages, jails, and hospitals during Christmas or times of calamity. And we
see them on the society pages of metropolitan dailies.
What a text does
 Determine how the writer discussed the main topic
 Identify examples, reasons, and conclusions

What a text means

  Analyze and interpret the message
 Evaluate the text in different aspects such as significance, content, objectivity,
and many more

CLAIM
CLAIM
 Is arguable that defines your goal of the text
- An idea that a writer asks/tell the audience to accept or anticipate
that they should agree with it.)
 Is the central statement of a text
- Your central claim lies at the heart of your argument. As a contestable
and weighty statement, it anchors your essay, encapsulating the most
important idea that you will unpack, unveil, and support in your writing.
 It can argue, persuade, and convince someone and prove something who may or
may not initially agree with you
 Claims are synonymous to belief, argument, assertion, viewpoint, or stand

According to Tiongson (2016), the characteristics of a good claim are:

1. argumentative and debatable

2. specific and focused
3. interesting
4. Logical (A claim should be logical. It should result from a reasonable weighing of
support provided.)

EXPLICIT CLAIM
 It is directly and clearly stated in the text. It is when you can easily point out the
information in the passage.
 It is clearly stated and there is no room for confusion.
 It is obvious and apparent.

Example
School attendance is a major factor when it comes to school success and
student behavior. In the National Center for Education Statistics 2007 Indicators
of School Crime and Safety, teachers surveyed and reported that students who
are frequently tardy have higher rates of suspension and other disciplinary
measures. Tardiness causes students to feel disconnected with school, leading to
behavior problems, lower score and dropouts
IMPLICIT CLAIM
 is indirectly expressed in the text and you need to look for clues or make
inferences to understand its meaning.
 is not directly stated but is suggested

Example
The practice of not being on time in school disrupts the learning experiences of
other students in class. They missed out most of the essential lessons to be
remembered and not being able to answer well the given activities to them.
Arriving late to school can also mean that students miss out on activities
designed to build connections with their peers, potentially impacting their social
interactions and creating a greater sense of alienation from their classmates.

3 TYPES OF CLAIMS
1. Claim of Facts
 It is a claim that argues whether something is true or untrue or a condition
has existed (past), exists (present) or will exist (future) but there must
always be potential for controversy, conflict and change
 can prove or disprove something, can be proven true or untrue, or a
condition has existed, exists, and will exist.
Example
School attendance is a major factor when it comes to school success and student
behavior. Students who are frequently tardy have lower grade point averages
(GPAs), lower scores on standardized assessments, and lower graduation rates.
Chronic tardiness in elementary and middle school is also linked to failure in high
school. In the National Center for Education Statistics 2007 Indicators of School
Crime and Safety, teachers surveyed and reported that students who are
frequently tardy have higher rates of suspension and other disciplinary measures.
Tardiness causes students to feel disconnected with school, leading to behavior
problems, lower score and dropouts.

2. Claim of Value
 It argues that something is good or bad or that one thing is better than
another thing. It also makes a judgment (subjective).
 It expresses approval or disapproval about something, attempts to show that
something is wrong or right, moral or immoral, beautiful or ugly.
  can give you a guide whether something is good, better, or best, ugly or
beautiful, bad, worse, or worst, right or wrong, moral or immoral, and also
compare ideas against one another.

Example
Abortion is immoral. It is seriously morally wrong because it is an act of killing a
being with a right to life and killing a being with a right to life is seriously morally
wrong because it robs such a being of its future--a future, in particular, of great
value like ours.  Donald Marquis argues that the fetus has a future similar in
morally relevant respects to the future lost by competent adult homicide victims,
and that, as consequence, abortion is justifiable only in the same circumstances
in which killing competent adult human beings is justifiable.

3. Claim of Policy
 It argues that certain conditions exist or that something should or should not
be done, in order to solve a problem.
 This is also called a problem-solution technique.
 It uses the modals should, should not, ought to and ought not to.
 To support you must convince your audience that a problem exists and then
prove your policy will fix it.

Example
1. There are three basic rules that people should follow to avoid COVID-19
infection: wear a mask, wash hands properly and practice social distancing.
2. Mandatory jail should be imposed for drunk driving violations to lessen the
cases of road accidents.

HYPERTEXT

HYPERTEXT
 A text displayed on a computer display or other electronic
devices with references to other text that the reader could
immediately access.
 A system that allow for non-sequential, or non-linear, reading.
 Hypertext is a reading environment that is based on the internet
 The links embedded in a hypertext document are known as hyperlinks
 Hyperlink- makes a dynamic organization of information possible
through links and normally underlined and in blue color.
 INTERTEXTUALITY

INTERTEXTUALITY

 is making another text based on an existing text.

 It is incorporating an original text to a text that is created by another author.
 The theory of Intertextuality is based on the idea that all signifying systems are a
product of previous signifying systems. It proposes that texts are not the original
product of one author, but of their connection with other texts, both written and
spoken, and to the structure of language (Kristeva, 1966).

4 methods of Intertextuality
1. ADAPTATION/ RETELLING -the restatement of a story or re-expression of a
narrative A film, TV drama, or stage play that is based on a written work

For example: J.K Rowlings Harry potter series has movie adaptation, Percy
Jackson, Crazy Rich Asian, Wattpad Books into Teleserye
2. QUOTATION- It is the method of directly lifting the exact statements or set of
words from a text another author has made.
 So intertextuality happens when we want to borrow a remarkable or
quotable quotes. There are some instances that there are quotes that are
connected to the idea or topic we are writing or reading and we want to
 apply it to our writing so We often say “and I quote” then the line we want to
borrow.
3. ALLUSION- In this method, a writer or speaker explicitly or implicitly pertains to an
idea or passage found in another text without the use of quotation.
 Allusion don’t tend to name the author or work to which they are referring.
Only readers who know the background will experience the full impact of an
allusion.

Example: "Chocolate cake is my Achilles heel."- The allusion here is to "Achilles'

heel," or the Greek myth about the hero Achilles and how his heel was his one
weakness. In this case, the speaker's "weakness" is chocolate cake.

4. PASTICHE- It is a text developed in a way that it copies the style or other

properties of another text without making fun of it unlike in a parody.
 Pastiche is a work of visual art, literature, or music that imitates the style or
character of the work of one or more other artists. Unlike parody, pastiche
celebrates, rather than mock the work it imitates.

Example
Dave McClure’s poem The Traveler is a comical imitation written after Edgar Alan Poe’s
poem The Raven
The Traveler (By Dave McClure)
“Long ago upon a hilltop (let me finish then I will stop)
I espied a curious traveler where no traveler was before.
As I raised an arm in greeting all at once he took to beating
at the air like one entreating passing boats to come ashore
like a castaway repeating empty movements from the shore or an over-eager whore.”

The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door.
‘Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door –Only this, and nothing
more.”