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REVISION SHEET – FP2 (AQA)

CALCULUS
Before the exam you should know:
The main ideas are:
• That you can differentiate the trig functions, the
• Calculus using inverse trig hyperbolic trig functions and their inverses.
• That you can apply the standard rules for differentiation
functions & hyperbolic trig (product rule, quotient rule and chain rule) to functions
functions and their inverses. which involve the above.
• That you can integrate trig functions and hyperbolic trig
functions.
• Calculating arc lengths. • That you can integrate, arcsin(x), arccos(x), arctan(x),
arccot(x), arsinh(x), arcosh(x) etc using integration by
parts.
• Your trig identities and hyperbolic function identities and
how to use them in integration problems. Particularly get
Differentiating the familiar with useful substitutions to make for certain
Inverse Trig Functions problems.
• How to calculate arc lengths.
y y y
y
1.5 3 y = arccos( x ) y = arctan( x )
dy −1 dy 1 1
= =
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + x 2
-1.5 1.5 x x
-10 10 x

y = arcsin( x )
0.5
dy 1 -1
-1.5 = -1.5 1.5 x

dx 1 − x2
It is important to be aware of what the range is for each of these, namely:
π π π π
− ≤ arcsin ≤ , 0 ≤ arccos ≤ π , − ≤ arctan ≤
2 2 2 2

Standard Calculus of Inverse Trig and Hyperbolic Trig Functions

y = arcsin( x ) y = arccos( x ) y = arctan( x) y = ars inh( x) y = ar cosh( x)
dy 1 dy −1 dy 1 dy 1 dy 1
= = = = =
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + x 2 dx 1 + x2 dx x2 −1

1 1 ⎛x⎞ 1 ⎛ x⎞ 1 ⎛x⎞
∫x 2
+a 2
= arctan ⎜ ⎟ + c
a ⎝a⎠
∫ a2 − x2
= arcsin ⎜ ⎟ + c
⎝a⎠
∫ x2 − a2
= ar cosh ⎜ ⎟ + c
⎝a⎠

1 ⎛x⎞
∫ x2 + a2
= ar sinh ⎜ ⎟ + c
⎝a⎠
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Calculus using these functions

The examples below are very typical and show most of the common tricks. Note – details of all substitutions
have been omitted, make sure you understand how to do them in this case and also in the case of a definite
integral.
1 1 1 1 ⎛ x+2⎞
• ∫ dx = ∫ dx = arsinh ⎜ ⎟+c
4 x 2 + 16 x + 32 2 ( x + 2) 2 + 4 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ ⎛ 1⎞⎞
⎜ 6⎜ x − ⎟ ⎟
⎛ 6x − 1 ⎞
dx = arcsin ⎜ ⎝
4 4 1 4 1 4 6⎠ 4
• ∫ 5 + 3x − 9 x 2
dx =
3 ∫ 5 ⎛ 2 x⎞
dx = ∫
3 2 3 ⎜ 21 ⎟
⎟ + c = arcsin ⎜
3 ⎝ 21 ⎠
⎟+c
−⎜x − ⎟ 21 ⎛ 1⎞
−⎜x− ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
9 ⎝ 3⎠ 36 ⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ ⎠

3 3 1 3 ⎛ x +1⎞
• ∫ 2 x + 4 x − 10
2
dx =
2 ∫ ( x + 1) − 6
2
dx =
2
arcosh ⎜
⎝ 6 ⎠
⎟+c

dy 2x dy dy dz
• y = arcosh(x 2 ) ⇒ = (to see this use the chain rule, set z = x 2 and then = ).
dx x −1
4 dx dz dx

Some useful integration tricks

x+5
5 5 5
x 5
Splitting up an integration: e.g. ∫
1
x +4
2
dx = ∫ 2
1
x +4
dx + ∫ 2
1
x +4
dx

2x x 1
By inspection: e.g. Since ln( x 2 + 4) gives when differentiated, we have ∫ 2 dx = ln( x 2 + 4) + c or
x +4 2
x +4 2
1 1
− x
since ( x 2 + 1) 2 gives x ( x 2 + 1) 2
when differentiated, we have ∫ dx = x 2 + 1 + c
x +1
2

Using clever substitutions: e.g. the substitution u = sinh( x ) will help you with ∫ x 2 + 1dx .

Arc Length and Area

The length of an arc between points A and B on a curve can be calculated by
1 1

⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞2 ⎤ 2 yB ⎡ ⎛ dx ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
∫
xB
∫ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dx or ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dy
⎣⎢ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ dy ⎠ ⎥⎦
xA yA

1
⎡⎛ dx ⎞ 2 ⎛ dy ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2 tB
In parametric form this is: ∫tA ⎢⎢⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥ dt
⎣ ⎦
The area of the surface formed when arc AB is rotated completely about Ox is
1 1
⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎤ 2 2
yB ⎡ ⎛ dx ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
y ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dx or 2π ∫ x ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dy
xB
2π ∫
xA
⎢⎣ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎥⎦ yA
⎢⎣ ⎝ dy ⎠ ⎥⎦
1
⎡ ⎛ dx ⎞2 ⎛ dy ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2 tB
In parametric form this (when rotated about the Ox) is: 2π ∫ y ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dt
tA
⎢⎣ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎥⎦
You should review examples of how this type of question and how to solve them. This obviously involves
differentiation, algebraic manipulation and integration (often by substitution).
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REVISION SHEET – FP2 (AQA)

COMPLEX NUMBERS 1
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• Multiply two complex numbers quickly and in one
• Manipulating complex step, this will save you a lot of time in the exam.
• Geometrically interpret z1 − z2 as the distance
numbers
between the complex numbers z1 and z2 in the
• Complex conjugates and Argand diagram.
roots of equations • Use the fact that z1 + z2 = z1 − ( − z2 ) which
• The Argand diagram equals the distance between z1 and − z2 in the
• Multiplying and dividing •
Argand diagram.
Remember the exact values of the sine and cosine
in polar form π π
angles which are multiplies of and , eg
6 4
Manipulating Complex π 2
cos = .
Numbers. 4 2

Multiplying, dividing, adding and subtracting

• Multiplying, adding and subtracting were all covered in material in FP1.

• You are also now required to be able to divide complex numbers, which is slightly more complicated.
Whenever you see a complex number on the denominator of a fraction you can “get rid of it” by multiplying
both top and bottom of the fraction by its complex conjugate.
3 + 2i ⎛ 3 + 2i ⎞⎛ 1 + i ⎞ 1 + 5i
e.g. =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟=
1 − i ⎝ 1 − i ⎠⎝ 1 + i ⎠ 2

Complex Conjugates and Roots of Equations

The complex conjugate of z = a + bi is z∗ = a − bi .

• Remember zz ∗ is a real number and it equals the square of the modulus of z.

• Complex roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs. This means that if you
are told one complex root of a polynomial equation with real coefficients you are in fact being told two roots,
two for the price of one). This is key to answering some very typical exam questions.

• Due to the above, a polynomial equation with real coefficients of odd degree must have at least one real root. In
certain exam questions you must use this fact to your advantage.

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The Argand Diagram Imaginary

axis

2 + 2i
(2, 2)

Real axis

( −1, −3) −4i

−1 − 3i
(0,−4)

• In the Argand diagram the point (x, y) corresponds to the complex number x + yi.
• You should be aware that the set of complex numbers z with for example z − 5 + i = 6 is a circle of radius 6
centred at 5 − i (or (5, −1)) in the Argand plane.
• The argument of a complex number z, denoted arg( z ) is the angle it makes with the positive real axis in the
Argand diagram, measured anticlockwise and such that −π < arg( z ) ≤ π .
• When answering exam questions about points in the Argand diagram be prepared to used geometrical
arguments based around equilateral triangles, similar triangles, isosceles triangles and parallel lines to calculate
lengths and angles.
Other sets of points in the complex plane.
Where a and b are complex numbers, the set of complex numbers z such that

1. arg( z − a ) = θ , is a half line starting from a in the direction θ

2. arg( z − a ) = arg( z − b) , is the line through a and b with the section between a and
b (inclusive) removed.
3. arg( z − a ) = arg( z − b) + π , is the line from a to b (not including a and b
themselves).

Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form

• If z = x + yi has z = r and arg( z ) = θ then z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) . This is called the polar or modulus-argument
form.
• To multiply complex numbers in polar form we multiply their moduli and add their arguments. So if z1 and
z2 are complex numbers we have z1 z2 = z1 z2 and arg( z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 . Note: you may have to make
7π π
adjustments so that arg( z1 z2 ) is in the required range for example if arg z1 = and arg z2 = then
12 2
7π π 7π + 6π 13π 11π
arg( z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 = + = = ≡−
12 2 12 12 12

• To divide complex numbers in polar form we divide their moduli and subtract their arguments. So if z1 and
z1 z ⎛z ⎞ ⎛z ⎞
z2 are complex numbers we have = 1 and arg ⎜ 1 ⎟ = arg z1 − arg z2 . Again, adjustments to arg ⎜ 1 ⎟ may
z2 z2 ⎝ z2 ⎠ ⎝ z2 ⎠
be necessary.
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REVISION SHEET – FP2 (AQA)

COMPLEX NUMBERS 2
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• How to multiply and divide complex numbers in polar
• De Moivre’s Theorem and form.
its applications • What de Moivre’s theorem is and how to apply it.
• Exponential notation
• About the exponential notation
• Using both of the above to eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ , z = x + yi = reiθ
get formulae by summing
C+jS series. • How to apply de Moivre’s theorem to finding multiple
angle formulae and to summing series.
• nth roots of complex
• About the n nth roots of unity, including how to
numbers represent them on an Argand diagram.

De Moivre’s Theorem
De Moivre’s Theorem states that ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ for any integer n. Some applications of
n

this are shown below.

Example 1 Example 2

Evaluate (1 + i ) .
12
Express sin 6 θ in terms of multiple angles.
Solution
Solution
The first thing to do is to write 1 + j in polar form.
If z = cos θ + is in θ then 2is in θ = z − z −1 .
⎛ π π⎞
This is just 1 + i = 2 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ So,
⎝ 4 4⎠
sin 6 θ = ( z − z −1 )
( 2i )
6 6

π π⎞
12

Therefore (1 + i ) = ( 2) ⎛
12
⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
12
= z 6 − 6 z 5 z −1 + 15z 4 z −2 − 20 z 3 z −3 + 15z 2 z −4 − 6 zz −5 + z −6
⎝ 4 4⎠
= 64 ( cos 3π + i sin 3π ) = z 6 + z −6 − 6 ( z 4 + z −4 ) + 15 ( z 2 + z −2 ) − 20

= 64 ( cos π + i sin π ) = 2 cos 6θ − 12 cos 4θ + 30cos 2θ − 20

= 64( −1 + 0) Therefore,
−64sin 6 θ = 2 cos 6θ − 12 cos 4θ + 30cos 2θ − 20
Note: in example 2 on the right it is typical to be
20 − 2 cos 6θ + 12 cos 4θ − 30cos 2θ
asked to go on to integrate sin 6 θ . De Moivre’s sin 6 θ =
theorem can also be used to express multiple angles in 64
.
terms of powers of the trig functions in a very 10 − cos 6θ + 6cos 4θ − 15cos 2θ
=
straightforward way. 32

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Exponential notation for complex numbers

Exponential notation begins with eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ . This means that any complex number, z, can be written
in polar form as z = x + yi = re iθ where r is the modulus of z and θ is the argument of z.

nth roots of complex numbers imaginary axis 3

3 + 3i

The non-zero complex number r (cos θ + i sin θ ) has n

different nth roots, which are: z2 2π
5
⎛ ⎛ θ + 2kπ ⎞ ⎛ θ + 2kπ ⎞ ⎞
1
z3
r n ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟ ,
n ⎠ ⎟⎠
z1
⎝ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝
-3 3
where k = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1. real axis

nth roots of complex numbers are best thought about z4

geometrically, the diagram shows the 5th roots of 3+3i. z5

You should be able to express these roots in polar form

using the exponential notation. -3

Example

Find all the fourth roots of –64.

Solution

−64 = 64 ( cos (π ) + i sin (π ) ) = 64eiπ

The modulus of each of the fourth roots must be the positive real fourth root of 64. This is
1 1
64 = 64 = ( 26 ) 4 = 2 2 = 2 2
3
4 4

π
The argument of one of the roots is a quarter of the argument of –64. The argument of –64 is π so this is .
4
π
⎛ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎞ i
So one of the fourth roots of –64 is 2 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = 2 2e 4
⎝ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠
2π π
And the other fourth roots have the same modulus and arguments which are a further = “on” from
4 2
this one. These are therefore,
3π
⎛ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎞ i
2 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = 2 2e 4
⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠
3π
⎛ ⎛ 5π ⎞ ⎛ 5π ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎞ −i
2 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ − ⎟ + i sin ⎜ − ⎟⎟ 2 2 e 4

⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠
π
⎛ ⎛ 7π ⎞ ⎛ 7π ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎞ −i
2 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ − ⎟ + i sin ⎜ − ⎟⎟ 2 2 e 4

⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠

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REVISION SHEET – FP2 (AQA)

HYPERBOLIC TRIG FUNCTIONS
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:

• Definitions of the hyperbolic e x − e− x e x + e− x

• The definitions sinh( x) = , cosh( x) = ,
trig functions and their 2 2
sinh( x) e x − e − x
inverses. tanh( x) = =
cosh( x) e x + e − x
• Working with the hyperbolic • That you can prove that
trig functions arccosh(x ) = ln( x + x 2 − 1),arsinh(x ) = ln( x + x 2 + 1)
• Identities involving 1 ⎛1+ x ⎞
artanh(x ) = ln ⎜ ⎟
hyperbolic trig functions 2 ⎝1− x ⎠
• Your trig identities and hyperbolic function identities,
experience will tell you when it is best to work in the
The Hyperbolic Trig Functions exponential form when dealing with equations.
These are defined as:
• And be able to prove hyperbolic identities from the
e x − e− x e x + e− x
sinh( x) = , cosh( x) = , e x − e− x e x + e− x
2 2 definitions sinh( x ) = ,cosh( x ) = , it’s
2 2
sinh( x) e x − e − x
tanh( x) = = . worth practicing indices for this.
cosh( x) e x + e − x
1
− ln10 10 −
e ln10
−e 10 = 99 .
For example, sinh(ln10) = =
2 2 20

The Inverse Hyperbolic Trig Functions

Just as the hyperbolic trig functions are defined in terms of ex, their inverses can be expressed in term of logs. In
1 ⎛1+ x ⎞
fact arcosh(x ) = ln( x + x 2 − 1), arsinh(x ) = ln( x + x 2 + 1) , artanh(x ) = ln ⎜ ⎟ . You should be able to
2 ⎝1− x ⎠
prove (and use) all of these. Here is the proof that arcosh(x ) = ln( x + x 2 − 1) .
e y + e− y
Let y = ar cosh( x ) , then x = cosh( y ) = . Rearranging this gives 0 = e y − 2 x + e − y . Multiplying this by ey
2
gives 0 = e 2 y − 2 xe y + 1 . This is a quadratic in ey and using the formula for the roots of a quadratic gives
2 x ± 4 x2 − 4
e =
y
= x ± x 2 − 1 . Taking logs gives y = ar cosh( x) = ln( x ± x 2 − 1) . Do you know why the
2
expression with the minus sign is rejected here?
These expressions can be used to give exact values of the inverse hyperbolic trig functions in term of logs.

For example,
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛5 ⎛ 5⎞
2 ⎞ ⎛5 16 ⎞
arcosh ⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ − 1 ⎟ = ln ⎜ + ⎟ = ln(3) .
⎝ 3⎠ ⎜3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎟ ⎝ 3 9 ⎠
⎝ ⎠

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Graphs of the Hyperbolic Trig Functions

y y

y = cosh( x ) y
4
8 y = tanh( x ) 1
dy
= sinh( x ) dy
dx = sech 2 ( x )
dx
x
-4 4 x -1 1

y = sinh( x )
dy
-4
= cosh( x ) 1 -1

dx -4 4 x

Graphs of the Inverse Hyperbolic Trig Functions

You must also know the graphs of the
inverse hyperbolic trig functions,
arsinh, arcosh and artanh. As for any
function these are obtained by
reflecting the respective graphs of sinh,
cosh and tanh in y = x. The examples of
arsinh and arcosh are shown here.
Notice that arcosh(x) is only defined
for x greater than or equal to 1.

Identities Involving Hyperbolic Trig Functions

Identities involving hyperbolic trig functions include:
cosh 2 u − sinh 2 u = 1, cosh(2u ) = cosh 2 u + sinh 2 u , sin(u + v ) = sinh(u ) cosh(v ) + cosh(u ) sinh(v)
The only difference between a hyperbolic trig identity and the corresponding standard trig identity is that the
sign is reversed when a product of two sines is replaced by a product of two sinhs. This is called Osborn’s Rule.

You can prove any hyperbolic trig identity using their definitions and should be able to do this for the exam.

Equations Involving Hyperbolic Trig Functions

Example
Solve the equation 13 cosh x + 5sinh x = 20 giving your answer in terms of natural logarithms.
⎛ e x + e− x ⎞ ⎛ e x − e− x ⎞
Solution 13cosh x + 5sinh x = 20 ⇒ 13 ⎜ ⎟ + 5⎜ ⎟ = 20
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⇒ 18e x + 8e − x − 40 = 0
⇒ 9e 2 x − 20e x + 4 = 0 ⇒ ( 9e x − 2 )( e x − 2 ) = 0
2 ⎛2⎞
⇒ ex = or e x = 2 ⇒ x = ln ⎜ ⎟ or x = ln 2
9 ⎝9⎠

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REVISION SHEET – FP2 (AQA)

SERIES AND INDUCTION
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• The standard formula:
• Summing Series using n n n
standard formulae
• Telescoping
∑r ∑r ∑r
r =1
,
r =1
2
,
r =1
3

• Proof by Induction • And be able to spot that a series like

(1× 2) + (2 × 3) + ... + n(n + 1)
can be written in sigma notation as:
n

Summing Series ∑ r (r + 1)
r =1
Using standard formulae • How to do proof by induction

Fluency is required in manipulating and simplify standard formulae sums like:

n 2 ( n + 1) n ( n + 1)
2

r ( r + 1) = ∑ r + ∑ r =
n n n

∑
r =1
2

r =1 r =1
3

4
+
2
1
= n ( n + 1) ⎡⎣ n ( n + 1) + 2 ⎤⎦
4
= n ( n + 1) ( n 2 + n + 2 ) .
1
4

The Method of Differences (Telescoping)

r+4 2 3 1
Since = − + (frequently in exam questions you are told to show that this is
r (r + 1)(r + 2) r r + 1 r + 2
true first) it is possible to demonstrate that:
n
r+4 ⎛ 3 1⎞ ⎛ 2 3 1⎞ ⎛2 3 1⎞
∑ r (r + 1)(r + 2) = ⎜⎝ 2 − 2 + 3 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 2 − 3 + 4 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 3 − 4 + 5 ⎟⎠ + ...
r =1

⎛ 2 3 1⎞ ⎛ 2 3 1 ⎞ ⎛2 3 1 ⎞
+⎜ − + ⎟+⎜ − + ⎟+⎜ − + ⎟
⎝ n − 2 n −1 n ⎠ ⎝ n −1 n n +1⎠ ⎝ n n +1 n + 2 ⎠

In this kind of expression many terms cancel with each other. For example, the (+) 1 in the first bracket
3
3 2
cancels with the (–) in the second bracket and the (+) in the third bracket. (subsequent fractions that are
3 3
cancelling are doing so with terms in the “…” part of the sum.)
n
r+4 3 2 1
This leaves ∑ r (r + 1)(r + 2) = 2 − n + 1 + n + 2 .
r =1

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Proof by Induction
1. Using proof by induction to prove a formula for the summation of a series,
n
E.g., Prove that ∑ (2r − 1) = n 2 .
r =1

2. Other miscellaneous questions. These are usually very easy, in fact easier than the questions which fall
into the categories above, so long as you don’t panic, keep a clear head and apply what you know.
⎛ 5 8⎞ ⎛ 1 + 4n 8n ⎞
E.g., show that if M = ⎜ ⎟ then M = ⎜
n
⎟ for all natural numbers n.
⎝ −2 − 3 ⎠ ⎝ −2n 1 − 4n ⎠

Example

n
1
Prove by induction that, for all positive integers n, ∑ 3r + 1 = 2 n(3n + 5) .
r =1

Solution

1
When n = 1 the left hand side equals ( 3 ×1) + 1 = 4 . The right hand side is × 1× ((3 × 1) + 5) = 4 . So the
2
statement is true when n = 1.

k
1
Assume the statement is true when n = k. In other words ∑ 3r + 1 = 2 k (3k + 5) .
r =1
k +1
1
It must now be shown that the statement would be true when n = k + 1, i.e. that ∑ 3r + 1 = 2 (k + 1)(3k + 8) .
r =1

Now,
k +1 k

∑ ( 3r + 1) = ∑ ( 3r + 1) + (3(k + 1) + 1)
r =1 r =1

1
= k (3k + 5) + (3k + 4)
2
1
= ⎡⎣3k 2 + 5k + 6k + 8⎤⎦
2
1
= ⎡⎣3k 2 + 11k + 8⎤⎦
2
1
= (k + 1)(3k + 8)
2

So the statement is true when n = 1 and if it’s true when n = k, then it’s also true when n = k +1.

Hence, by induction the statement is true for all positive integers, n.

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