come. INTRODUCTIONS TO SURVEYING AND GEOINFORMATICS Surveying is defined as the process of measuring lengths, heights differences and angles on site either for the preparation of large-scale plans or in order that engineering works can be located in their correct positions on the ground oR Surveying can also be defined as the marking measurement of relative position including dimension and level of natural and manmade features on the earth surface. Geoinformatics is the entire procedure taken to capture, process and manage data acquired during surveying Geoinformatics System is a system for capturing storing, checking, integrating, manipulating analy: Uses of surveying and Ge s and displaying data obtained during surveying. formatics 1. To demarcate boundaries of private and public land To produce maps above and below the earth | The Surveyors prepare navigation charts for use in the sea, air and land To determine gravity and magnetic fields of the earth 5. To determine size and shape of land above the earth To provide data for design and construction of Engineering 7. Survey determines data for studies of crystal movement and determine the rate of subsidence of existing levels 8. To provide data banks for land use and other natural resources management and planning 9, To provide data for real time monitoring in various fields like military launching, fish production, transport planning and management, oil pipelines and spills management Surveying as profession is widely applicable in various fields, the knowledge of surveying is very useful in Civil Engineering, agriculture, Geophysics, Architecture, Metrology, Geography Astronomy and Navigation. BRANCHES OF SURVEYING The branches of surveying is basically divided into two parts namely plane and geodetic surveying: 1, PLANE SURVEYING: plane surveys are surveys carried out in a small area and the curvature of the Earth is not taken into consideration. It is regarded that the Earth is plane surface. Examples of plane surveys are surveys for agriculture, engineering designs and construction, urban and regional planning, land administration. ete.2. GEODETIC SURVEYS: is the branch of survey where the curvature of the Earth is taken. into consideration and is usually carried out in a large area. These surveys are carried out with higher order of accuracy. Geodetic survey employ the use of precise equipment such as total station, T3, T2 and EDM/Tapes, global position system (GPS)/Dopplet system, The science that provides backing for geodetic survey is known as GEODESY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS Surveys can be classified based on purpose and nature of field, methods and types of instruments used. Based on purpose is as follows: 1, GEODETIC SURVEYS: is a survey based on large area where the curvature of the Earth is taking into consideration, High precision equipment are used. Mainly for mapping, controls extension high precision construction. >. ENGINEERING SURVEYS: these include all surveys for the purpose of construction. Engineering surveys are survey’ carried out for the purpose of planning, design and construetion of engineering projects, monitoring the performance and safety of the structure, deformation of structural elements, calculating areas and volumes: of land and earth work, obtaining data for setting 6ut of roads and curves, The objective of engineering survey is to supply information that will aid the planning of the project, design and construction. 3, TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS: these are surveys used to determine the position of the Farth surface for the production of maps and plans for natural and man-made features. Topographical maps have horizontal distance between futures and the elevation above a datum shown, The character of the vegetation is usually shown with conventional signs. Topographical survey produces topographical maps which are used mainly for planning, layers of industrial areas, route design, drainage is an irrigation projects, land use planning and providing useful guides to military in times of war. 4. CADASTRAL SURVEYS: these are survey for land administration and legal purposes. It involves defining the boundary position and size of properties. It involves survey for land uses and allocation. A cadastral survey is divided into two mainly Legal and Technical cadastral. The legal deals with the process of land registration and interest in individual plots while technicals js concerned with the technical process of the marketing the property I'm producing plan based on your measurement Cadastral survey is there for the process of measuring, defining and recording boundaries or property for land administration or Legal purposes. Land ownership is based mainly on plants produced from cadastral survey. 5. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS: hydrographic surveys are surveys carried out on water bodies for design, construction and maintenance of harbours inland water routes, and sea defences, determining seabed, navigational charts, dredging, offshore gas and oil construction such as oil plate form and pipelines, sewage disposal, mineral resources development, ete, Inhydrographic surveys acoustic equipment, global postioning system, scanners, ete used to be able to map the seabed. 6. PHOTOGRAMMETRY: this include surveys that make measurements and photographs obtained from aircrafts taking a series of flight over an area, Photogrammetry is an art, science and technology of obtaining reliable information through measurement from photographs taken from ground stations while aerial photogrammetry involves measurement from photographs taken in the air, Measurements from photographs taken from ground stations or platform are called TERRESTRIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY 7. REMOTE SENSING: this is the art and science of obtaining information about an object. area through the analysis of data acquired by device that is not in contact with the object or area under investigation. Remote sensing surveys include measurement from aerial images taken by space mounted camera on satellite. The purpose of the survey is to produce map or images good for land administration, planning. exploration, long-route design ete OTHER METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION (a). Surveying of equipment i, GPS survey ii, Corfpass survey iii, Chain surveys iv. Tachometric surveys vii, Leveling survey viii, Sounding survey (b). Classification based on methods employed in the survey i, Traverse survey ii. Triangulation surveys (c), Classification based on the nature of area which the survey is based i. Land surveys which is further elassified into topographical, cadastral, route survey and city surveys etc ii. Air surveys, satellite surveys and astronomical surveys iii, Hydrographic survey: this involves measurement in water bodies like navigations (d). Surveys can be classified based on the order of accuracies. We have first orders, second order, third and fourth order surveys. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING 1. PRINCIPLE OF WHOLE TO PART: the principle States that the area to be surveyed is first treated as a whole then is broken down to smaller unit in form of triangles, quadrilaterals ete nti] the whole area is covered. This means that the first stage is that the area to be surveyed is first surveyed by establishing controls to cover the whole area by traversing or triangulation igh precision equipment such as theodolite, EDM GPS. The second stage is that the rest using 3of the area is surveyed using less precision equipment with lower accuracy to provide controls and survey details until everywhere is covered. The advantage of the principle of whole to part is that it reduces the accumulations of errors 2. THE PRINCIPLE OF PART TO WHOLE This principle states that the area to the surveyed is regarded to be too large using a high precision equipment until the whole area is covered. Disadvantage of the part to whole is that errors committed in the small beginning will continue to magnify as the extension is inereased as so becomes uncontrollable at the end 3. PRINCIPLE OF SCIENTIFIC HONESTY ‘This principle states that all surveys records such as scientific observation and measurement carried out in the field, computations done in the office and plan produce must be done in honesty CHECKING IN SURVEYS Any work done by a surveyor must be checked by another survey or no matter how qualified the first surveyor is practically. This is because most jobs are done in harsh conditions and unfavorable terrains so errors can set in during observations and measurements. The ehecking involves reducing the angles, checking computation and plotting of plan or maps by another surveyor. Despite these checking measures, errors can still occur in the finished final plan. The final check will involve inspecting the final plan in the field and comparing some measurement scale off the plan with the equivalents on the ground ACCURACY AND PRECISION Accuracy of a measurement or observation is correctness of such measurement or observation relation with the true value or ACCURACY of @ measurement or observation is an indication ot how close it is to the true value of the quantity measured. To obtain the accuracy the value obtained must be compared to the standard value, Every surveying job has a set of standard of accuracy required so the surveyor must use of choose the right method equivalent for both angles and distances to achieve such accuracies. PRECISION Precision of measurement is the degree of perfection in the equipment, method and technique used in executing the job. The higher the precision the better the accuracy of obtained. ERRORS AND MISCLOSURE ‘All measurements made in surveying a subject to some form of errors no matter how careful the surveyor is in carrying out the measurement, These errors could be due to the surveyors or chain man's carelessness or in experience, It may be due to physical site conditions or physical condition of the equipment used. ‘The surveyor must be awvare of the sources and types of errors and how to avoid them. There are three types of errors; 1. GROSS FRRORS: these errors are referred to as mistakes or blunders and is usually caused by inexperience or carelessness on the part of the surveyor chain man, Gross error occur in any 4stage of survey work such as when observing, booking, computing and plotting. The effects of gross error damages results if not corrected. Example of gross error is miscounting of tape length when chaining long distance, misreading the tape, booking wrongly (e.g writing 23 instead of 32), Good checking procedure like measuring the line twice or more is a good solution to avoid gross error. >. CONSTANT ERROR: constant errors are also referred as systematic errors. These are errors that occur matter how often the measurement is carried out and checked. The errors are in the method used in the measurements, the instrument used and the physical condition of the place. Examples of Constant error are misalignment of the tape, standardization, slope, expansion of steel tapes. frequency changes in EDM, collimation in level, Ete. The only way to reduce or remedy constant errors is by using different method and equipment for the job 3. Human error (random or accidental errors) These are small residual errors of sights and touch, Human errors are generally small in nature and caused by a limitation of instruments and observers MISCLOSURE This refers to the value obtained when an accepted true value of a quantity is compared with obtained measured value from the field, Misclosure is used to determine the accuracy of a measurement. ORDER OF ACCURACY They are usually four classes of surveys with reference to order of accuracy as used for engineering design and construction. The classes are as follows: 1. FIRST ORDER SURVEYS: these are surveys of very high accuracy and high precision equipment are used. Geodetic survey’ are usually carried out to meet this accuracy. The linear misclosure is from 1/25,000 and 2N seconds for angular misclosure 2, SECOND-ORDER SURVEYS: these are also surveys that require high accuracy and less precise instruments is used compared to the first order surveys. They are used to provide control and extend controls from first order control following the principle of whole to part, The linear misclosure is 1/10,000 and the angular misclosure 10N seconds 3. THIRD ORDER SURVEY: they are surveys of lower order and requires less preci equipment, They are mainly used in setting out of projects and locating the position of points, It is used for cadastral work. The linear and angular misclosure is from 1/5,000 and 30N seconds respectively 4. FOURTH-ORDER SURVEY: these are lower order service compared to third order survey and less precise equipment is used. They are mainly for small site. The linear misclosure is 1/2.Q00N seconds and angular misclosure is 60N seconds MEASUREMENTS IN SURVEYING The act of taking measurements in surveying is very important because plan/map is produced based on his measurements. There are two types of measurement namely direct and indirect measurement.DIRECT MEASUREMENT invoives obtaining results directly by applying measuring instruments to get required data. Example of direct measurement is using tape to measure a line and using compass to obtain bearing. INDIRECT MEASUREMENT is obtaining a data based on application of mathematical knowledge. Trigonometry and geometry is essential in determining indirect measurement: Example DREDGE. SLOT Having to measure distance BC that crosses a dredge slot with water. Ifthe angles A and B and we observed and distance AB measured directly then BC and be obtained using sine rule of trigonometry BC ~@) {The parameters that are usually measured in surveying are horizontal angle, horizontal distances, vertical angles. vertical distance (height and slope distance) UNIT OF MEASUREMENT Generally two measure measurements are considered in surveying i.¢ linear measurement and angular measurement, They are four unit for linear and angular measurement in surveying, they are length, area, volume, and angle. S.1is the standard unit of measurement in surveying. (a) LINEAR MEASUREMENT The following units are most commonly used unit in surveying during linear measurementTable 1 [Quantity __| Symbol [i a Length Metre rE Area Square Metre Volume Cubic Metre Mass Kilogramme [Capacity Litre ‘Table 1.1: S.1 units commonly used with table 1.0 | Quanti Recommended S.1 unit Other unit that may be used ‘Length Kilometre (km) Centimetre (em) Metre (m) Millimetre (mm) | Area Square metre (m*) | Square Centimetre (cm?) Square millimeter (mm?) Hactare (100m x 100m) Volume - Cubie metre (m') Cubic decimetre (dm?) Cubic milimetre (mm*) Cubic centimeter (cm*) ‘Mass - Kilogramme (kg) ] Gramme (g} Miligramme (mg) Capacity ‘Cubic metre (m*) Litre (I) Cubic milimetre (mm') Mililitre (ml) Table 1.2 shows basic relation: ship between volume, mass an \d capacity. Volume Mass Capacity T cubic metre ~ | 1000 Kilogrammes 1000 litres; Teubic decimetre ~ | T kilogramme “Titre _| [Teubic centimetre Tgramme Timilitre (b) ANGULAR MEASUREMENT: They are four units that are usually employed during angular measurements namely: sexagesmal, centicimal.hour and radian measure. i. Sexagesimal system: is ofien referred to as degree measure. Here angles are expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds = 60" = 60"‘mal system: many surveying instruments are graduated in centicimal system called grad. A circle is made up of 400 grads 360° = I rev 400 grads = 1 rev 1g = 100C 1c = 100CC rev represents revolution g represents grads C represents Centicimal minute CC represents Centicimal seconds Note: a cirele is divided into four units, each unit is made up of 100 Centicimal minutes, iii. Hour system: Angles can be expressed in hour system. The hour system expresses angles in hours, minutes and seconds 1 Circle (Circumference) = 24 hours 1 hour = 60 minutes 1 minutes = 60 seconds iv. Radin system: some instruments carry graduation in radian rather than in degree or grad. A radian (rad) is defined central circle subtended and are equal to the radius of a circle. Conversion relation between sexagesmal, centrimal, hour and radian system. 1, 360° = 400g 400 0 ee ~ 3609 360° = 24" 24) 1 alan 360] 15" 11. 24" = 400g ae ~ 24 1" ILL. Degree to radians 9 [2RAD [ i Y RAD 180 Examples i. Convert 20°12"30* to grad 24! = 400g b= 202 Fr2081230" = “22 « 20%12"30° =333.33g ii, Convert 142°22'14. 5" to grad. 360° =400 400 ioe 360 142°22'14,5" = 22. 142922!14.5! 360 157.778 LINEAR MEASUREMENT AND CHAIN SURVEY LINEAR MEASUREMENT The measurement of distance is very important operation in surveying. Distance measurement can be done cither by direct or indirect method ERRORS AND CORRECTIONS IN DIRECT LINEAR MEASUREMENT 1. SAG (CATENARY): the most field conditions where the ground is rough or irregular taping becomes difficult. The tape will have to suspended between two points with tension applied to the tape. The weight of the tape will cause the centre to sag in the form of a eatenary curve. CATENARY is defined as the curve formed by a perfectly flexible string or uniform weight per unit length when hanging under its own weight and supported only at its ends, The height of both support should be the same. ¥ In the figure above, the required length XY. is the straight line but the tape sags thereby making, the length longer than the straight line. A correction known as sag correction must be applied to the distance measured.The correction is given by w?L!weos?8 24Te Where @ = the angle of slope between the supports, w= the weight of the tape per metre length (N/m) T =tension applied to the tape in Newton (N) L = length of the support in metre (m) NOTE: catenary taping have more accuracy than normal ground taping method. 2. SLOPE CORRECTION: some field condition the ground is not always flat nor rough. Some cases are gentle slope, for example taking a linear measurement up hill or down the valley. Maps and plans are prepared based on horizontal distance not slope distance.therefore a correction must be applied to the slope distance to bring it to horizontal distance Three methods are used to convert slope distance to horizontal distance namely; step chaining, using Abney level to measure slope angle and using heights (reduced level) of two points of slope distance. | I} __H=deos The correction of slope distance measured is given by C =L(1-cos0) And 10H=L-C Where C L=slope distance measured O-angle of the slope correction H=horizontal distance In the use of height method if the height difference between A and B is known and the slope between them is gentle i.e uniform, use a distance is given by H=- 6 h/2L Where H= horizontal distance 6 -angle of the shape h-difference in height between the points L=distance measured NOTE: The correction is always negative in magnitude. 3. TEMPERATURE CORRECTION: steel tapes are made of metals and metals when subjected to a temperature change expand due to high temperature and contract due to low temperature. When a steel tape is used at high temperature other than manufacturer's temperature it expands and in turn increases the actual length of the measurement. Survey thermometer are used to take temperature at the start, mid and end of every job. The temperature correction is given by C = aL(tF ~ts) Where a = coefficient of expansion of the metal tape. The coefficient of expansion of steel is usually 0.00001 12°C 1s = the temperature of standardized tape i= mean temperature of the field L = observed length 4, TENSION CORRECTION: steel tapes are produced using steel material and are elastic, it means a tape length varies when tension is applied and this causes error, All steel tapes and standardized (calibrated). Tension applied by the manufacturer during standardization of the tape is maintained under field condition by using a spring balance and a roller grip. If the constant tension used is different from the standard tension, then a tension correction can be applied to the measured length, Tension correction is given by uiL(TF = TS) AE Where Tf=the tension applied in the field (N) Ts-Standard tension applied (N) A=cross sectional area of the tape (mm?) E=The modulus of elasticity for the material ( for steel tape E = 200,000Nmm*) L. = ‘The measured length 5. STANDARDIZATION CORRECTION: every tape used in surveying has a normal length and conditions attached to it by the manufacturer. These conditions of tension and temperature are hardly achieved in the field due to constant use which reduces or alter the length of the tape due to wear and tear. This effect can produce serious error over a time, The tape on field has to be compared with a standard tape to know the true length. This process is known as standardization of tape. Everyday should be standardized from time to time. The standardization correctio# is given by _Hi- be) € Ly Where L= the measured length of the tape (m) the norminal length of the tape (m) the standardization length EXAMPLE: Question A steel type of nominal length 30m was used to measure a line AB by suspending it between supports. The following measurements were recorded Line Length Measured | Slop Angle Mean ——_—| Tension applied Temperature AB 29.872 ~ [3%40r sc ~ | 120N 2The standardized length of the tape against a reference tape was known to be 30.014m 20°C and SON tension. If the tape weighs 0.17Nm and has a cross-sectional area of 2mm?, calculate the horizontal length of AB. Young modulus (F) all the tape material is 200kNmm-? and the coefficient of thermal expansion is 0,0000112 per °C Solution .875m, 6 = 3°40!, 0.014m, 0,000m, Tr=120, Ts = SON, A = 2mi E = 200,000Nmm?, « = 0.0000112"C, W = 0.17M Tr=S°C, Slope correction C = -L(1-cos 8) = -29.872(1-cos’40') = -0.06NM Standardization connection = “==? 2 _ 29.872(30.014 — 30.000) ~ 30.000 = 0.0739m Ler) Tension Correction = aE 29.892(120 — 50) 2(200,000) =+0,0052m 13eet aki Mie CHAIN SURVEYING Chain surveying is a method of surveying whereby plans are produced as a result of linear measurement only carried out on lines and details. It does not involve measuring angles in the field. The plotting is done with distances only The principle of chain surveying involves building series of triangles from straight lines, can be plotied to scale without bearing. Any shape of figure to be surveyed using chain surveying must have a framework essentially made of triangles, B In the survey of land of rectangular shape ABCD, figure cannot be plotted even when all the sides are known having diagonals AC and BD. Since all the sides ABD and BCD are known the triangle BCD can be plotted forming the figure ABCD without knowing any of angles of quadrilateral EQUIPMENT USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING The following are the equipment used in chain surveying 1. The chain: chains are made of steel wire usually in 20m and 30m. It have links which major 200mm from centre to centre of each middle - connecting ring. The end of the chain has brass handle which are adjustable and included in the length of the chain. Chains have been replaced by steel bands. 2. Steel bands: this is a long steel band or tape with brass handles at the ends. The width and length varies. They are steel bands width 6 mm and length of 30m, 0m, 100m and 300m. The steel band usually indicates the standard tension and temperature for which it was graduated. Steel band are more accurate than chain 3. Linen tape: linen tape is made of synthetic material attached to spindle in leather or plastic metal case. This case provide a safe place for the tape. They are linen tape of 30m, 500m 100m ete 4. The ranging Pole: ranging poles are usually painted red and white, they are made of wood and fibrous glass. They are used for ranging of lines and marking of points 5. Optical square: the setting of right angle optical square across staff may be used 6. Arrow: arrows are small steel wires with pointed end, It is usually painted red. Th to Mark the fill chain length during measurement 7. Line ranger: line ranger is used to Mark intermediate point in land between two distant point are used 14‘TERMS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING 1. Base line: is the longest line chained in the framework that fixes a direction of all other lines. ‘The accuracy of the other lines depends on the accuracy of the baseline 2. Offsets: these are lines usually at 90® used to detail corners of buildings, roads, fences, poles, wally ete during surveys. OffSet provide the easiest way of detailing in chain surveying. 3. Tic lines: these are lines of measurement made from survey lines not at right angles to the survey line, The lines are usually applied to details that are far from survey lines. 4. Check lines: check lines are cross measurement used to distort mistakes that are bound to happen in surveying due to harsh weather and terrain. FIELD PROCEDURE IN CHAIN SURVEYING Field procedure in chain surveying are as follow 1. Chain surveying start with reconnaissance. Reconnaissance is the process of walking around the site to note things that will help to arrange and execute the process. Reconnaissance includes choosing a framework which the chain survey will you be based. Stations and their visibility is determined 2. Two chairmen are involved, one is leader and the other is known as the follower. Place ranging poles at the two end (x, y) of the line to be measured. The zero of the tape is set at x by the follower. 3. The leader stretches the tape by unwinding it as he walked along the line with extra ranging Pole in his hand. Leader stops at the full length of the tape and places ranging Pole vertically at the full length of the tape 4. The follower takes few steps backwards from the pole at x and line up ranging held by the leader. 5. The tape is straightened and laid with zero end placed at x while the leader places and arrow at the position of full length of day 6. Leader and follower move ahead simultaneously with the tape unwound. The process is repeated with the follower at the position of the marked arrow. Itshould be noted that the number of arrows plus the section of the end less than a tape full length at y leaves the total length of the line x y. Ensure that the ranging pole at x should remain at x to aid alignment from x to y to check chaining to eliminate gross error, To improve the accuracy of ranging theodolite can be used in lining up the ranging Pole. OVERCOMING OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEYING The following are the obstacles that are encountered in chain surveying. 1. Obstacle to ranging Pole but not chain e.g across a hill Obstacle to chaining but not ranging Obstacle to both chaining and ranging e.g across a building In obstacle to ranging but not chaining two conditions May likely arise i, When both ends of line will be visible from the centre or a point on the line 3 15ii, When both ends are not In the case of obstacle to ch shown in the figure below ble from intermediate points. ing it's not ranging there is intervisibility through the obstacle as io Fig In figure A. a rectangle is set out such that Bb=Ce and the line be is parallel to BC Le be-BC In figure B, the line Bb is set at right angle to line BC, measure Bb and be. Compute using Pythagoras theorem to get BC In figure C, from B set out a line Bb to clear off the obstacle, then set a right angle at b to meet the chain line at ¢, Measure Bb and be, then use Pythagoras theorem to compute for BC ie BC = (b+ be*) Ina case where the obstacle is like a river where it will be difficult to measure across it as shown in the figure below 16 \rLine Qs is set out perpendicular to chain line such that R is marked as the mid-point. ST is set out perpendicular to line Qs and point T is located such that it is a straight line with R and P Then QP= TS Ina case where the obstacle affects chaining and ranging such as a building shown in the figure below D Set out a’perpendicular line at B and C such that the length Bb and Ce Then the length be = BC BOOKING OF FIELD MEASUREMENT IN CHAIN SURVEYING During booking of field measurement we must ensure that the field book is neat and consistent, Field books should be explicit enough for plotting diagrams, station point are represented neatly on the field books The features of chain survey field books are: 1. Sketches of the area showing the stations and the details 2. Compass bearing of lines 3. The title of survey, location, of survey 4. Where steel tapes are used in the place of chains the tension applied, temperature and atmospheric condition of the field 5, The name of the surveyor 6. Record of chain lines 7. Explanatory notes should be added to sketches: 8. Ensure that all measurement must be recorded as soon as they are taken. Where they are wrong entries, it should be cancelled neatly and right imo recorded. v7Below is a field book for a chain surveying. LINE AB ENDS | 78.65 55 35 32 28 24 22.79 | 22 20 | : a ) ) | DIMENSION IN METRES Pees ears 0.00_| 18LEVELLING Leveling is the process of measuring the difference in elevation between two or more points. Or leveling is the process of determining the relative difference in elevation between two points or more on the earth surface. In engineering surveying. leveling has many applications and it is used at all stages in construction projects from initial site survey to the final setting out. TERMS USED IN LEVELLING 1, LEVEL LINE: is defined as a line along which all points are of the same height. 2. LEVEL SURFACE OR HORIZONTAL LINE: this is defined as a surface on which all points and normal to the direction of gravity. Level surface obtained by filling suspending a plumb Bob 3. DATUM: this is a level line chosen to which the elevation of all points is related to or a line chosen which all heights are referred to during leveling 4. THE REDUCED LEVEL (RL); this is the elevation ofa point above a chosen datum surface. 5, BENCH MARK (BM): these are references fixed marks or points whose reduce level has previously been determined. Permanent bench mark or ordnanee bench mark (OBM) are those Whose reduced level is determined by the country/state agency responsible for surveying and mapping. Temporary bench mark (TBM) are marks setup unstable points near construction site to which all leveling operations on that particular site will be referred. TBM are normally used when there is no OBMs near the site. 6. BACK SIGHT (BS): this refers to the first sight by the surveyor after the level instrument has been set up. It is usually taken on point whose height is known: 7, FORESIGHT (FS): this refers to the last sight taking before a change of instrument position by the surveyor. It is also a sight taken to point whose height is required to carry on the line of levels. 8. INTERMEDIATE SIGHT (IS): this is referred to any other sight taken other than backsight and foresight 9. HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT (HI): this is known as the height of the line of collimation above the datum 10. HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION: this is an imaginary line defined by the horizontal line which coincide with the height of instrument 11. CHANGE POINT: this refers to a point which both foresight and backsight are taken. 19USES OF LEVELLING Leveling is used for the following: 1, Determination of height difference between points It is used for planning and construction of roads, rails ete Planning and construction of underground services. E.g drains, pipelines, tunnels etc. Use for contouring Itis used for fixing of site levels, Determination of basic framework of national network and controls for mapping The determination of extent of subsidence and local Christian movement investigation It is used for determination of the potential values METHODS OF LEVELLING There are several methods of levelling and transferring of height in surveying. these includes 1. Spirit leveling Trigonometric heighting Barometric leveling Satellite heighting Hydrostatic leveling Rep ea Re ERRORS IN LEVELLING Errors in levelling can be ch ied as follows: (a). GROSS ERROR: these are mistakes arising in the mind of the observer. They are usually due to carelessness or inexperience. The following are gross error in leveling: 1, Wrong staff Reading: this is probably the most common error of all in leveling. Example of wrong staff reading are: is placing the decimal point, reading the wrong metre value and reading, the staf wrong way up Using the wrong cross-hair: instead of reading the stuff against the axial line, the observer read against one of the stadia line. This error is common impossibili 3. Wrong booking 4. Omission or an enti omitted entirely a staff reading can easily be written in the wrong column or even Spirit level not centered: when using automatic levels the small circular spirit level must be accurately centered (b) CONSTANT ERRORS: these errors are duc to instrumental defects. The following are constant error 201. Nee Werticality off the staff this is a serious source of errors. Instead of beit his staff may be leaning forward or backward. held vertically True reading 3.995 ¥ |___ Line of sight Actual reading 4.00 From the figure, staff is out of 3° out of vertical. If the reading of 4.000m is observed, it will be in error by Smm. The correct reading is 4xcos3°-3.995m The error can be eliminated by fitting the staff with a circular spirit level 2. Collirnation error in the instrument: in a properly adjusted level the line of sight must be perfectly horizontal when the instrument has been set up ready for use. If not there will be an error in the staff Reading. The arrow can be entirely eliminated by making back sight and fore sight equal in length 3. Staff graduation errors: with improvement of quality in manufacture of levelling staves, particularly in the printing process, staff graduation ertors are very uncommon, However care should be taken when using a telescopic staff to ensure that the staff is fully extended (c). RANDOM ERRORS: these errors are due to ph errors small and are likely compensatory sical and climatic conditions. The resulting 1. Effect of wind and temperature: windy environment and harsh temperature may affect the stability of instrument causing the height of collimation to change slightly. 2. Soft and hard ground: when the instrument is set on soft ground it is likely to sink slightly as the observer moyes around it. When setting frosty earth the instrument tends to rise out of the around. Again the height of collimation change slightly 3. Change points: at any change point the staff must be held on exactly the same spot for both fore sight and back sight.A firm spot must be chosen and marked by chalk, 21LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS:le 9 compensatoreens £46, 2b Aco bw € fonts D Feuminon ae & sadn25 2 ayo 15 Sloe9, ek Po --ts Figure 4.15 -— Gist postion reage fontd fe ae ~ainst postion? ilies Sh i, 26 vo:Sobkia PROM op per plate tongent aeRE (a). ‘The surveying telescope: an essential part of every levelling instrument is a telescope in figure 4.2, which is used to sight the staff at any point of the survey. Figure 4.2b shows the fumdamental optical arrangement of the telescope of a typical surveying instrument. ~ In order to use instrument, the observers is behind the eyepiece and manually aligns the telescope on to the distant levelling staff ~ ‘The light rays originating at the staff, as into the telescope through the object class and in the process are inverted. The rays continue through the telescope and are captured as image on a glass disc called the reticule ~ A series of lines is itched on the reticle. The observer sees these lines the inverted image of the staif with an eye is placed to the eyepiece. Eyepiece is really an arrangement of lens which magnifies the image and allows observer to read the graduations on the staff (fig 4.2 (c)) In order to read the staff graduations clearly the cbserver must make two adjustment 1, The eyepiece must be focused on the reticule until the lines of the reticules are seen clearly : and sharply. This is done by slowly rotating the eyepiece in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction. This process is known as eliminating parallax 2. The image of the staff must be focused on the reticle by means of internal focusing lens. This lens is activated by focusing a screw which is situated on the right hand side of the telescope (a) Automatic level: levels are categorized into automatic levels, digital level and tilting level. Automatic level general featu is shown in figure 2.5. these instrument established horizontal lines at each point where they are set up and consist of a telescope and a compensator. The telescope provides an accurate line-of-sight and enables the level to be used over distance suitable for surveying purposes. The compensator built into the telescope ensure that the line- of-sight viewed through the telescope is horizontal even if the optical axis of the telescope itself” is not horizontal. (c) Tilting level: the telescope of a tilting level is not rigidly attached to the base of level and can be tilted a small amount in the vertical plane about a pirate placed below the telescope. The amount of tilt is controlled by the tilting screw which is usually directly underneath the telescope eyepiece. Unlike an automatic level, a tilting level have a level vial fixed to its telescope to enable horizontal line of sight to be set. A level vial is a barrel shaped glass tube sealed at both ends that is partially filled with purified synthetic alcohol. The horizontal line of sight will be set using a tilting level by adjusting the inclination of the telescope with the tilting screw until the vials bubble lies in the middle of its graduation (d) Digital level: digital level are used in conjunction with a unique pattern staff, similar to a barcode, They are fully automatic and when properly set up the line of sight through the a—— a ee telescope is horizontal like that of automatic level. The main advantage of a digital level is that the surveyor does not need to read the staff, note the Reading or calculate the result, Digital Reading to all staff Reading, result calculation and this reduces sources of errors (e) Levelling staff: the levelling staff enables distances to be measured vertically above or below point on which it is held relative to a line of collimation. The length of a levelling staff is 3, 4 or 5m, why the weight of the reading face must not be less than 38 mm. Different colours must be used to show the graduation Marks in alternate metres, the common colours being black and red on a white ground. Major graduation occurs at 100 mm intervals, the figures denoting m and decimal parts. Minor graduation and not 10 mm intervals, the lower three graduation marks of each 100 m division being connected by a vertical band to form a letter E. This, the 'E! band covers 50 mm and its distinctive shape is a valuable aid in Reading the staff, The figure below shows various staff readings 29(£). Digital staft: digital staves are made of aluminium or fiberglass which makes the staves lightweight, strong and durable. Digital staves are usually the first with the barcode printed on one face of the staff. The staves are produced in various length from 2 m to § 1 OBSERVATION PROCEDURE (a) PROCEDURE WITH AUTOMATIC LEVELS STEP 1: figure 1 illustrates a typical leveling situation where the reduced levels of several points B.C, D, E, F and G are to determined a point A which is the benchmark. The levelling is to be closed on a second benchmark H. The instrument has to be set up twice in this particular case, Odo in a practical leveling exercise there could be many more set of points. Every time the instrument is set up, the first sight taken from that position is called a back sight (BS). Likewise the last site taken prior to moving the instrument is called foresight (FS). Thus, in set-up number 1. point A is a back sight, while point E is a foresight. Any other side of that between backsight and first sight is intermediate sight (IS). Point B, C and D are intermediate sight (IS). Points B, C and D dre intermediate sights. Set up number 2, the site taken to point E is a BS, point F is an IS, point G is an IS and finally point H is a FS, It should be noted that the sight His taken to the underside of a beam which is higher than the instrument. In such a case the staff is head upside down against the point while the reading is taken. Such a site is called an inverted staff Reading. Point E, where a first sight followed by a back sight is taken, is called a change point. Both readings are on the same line of the field book. STEP Il: at each of the survey, the stuff folder holds the stuff on the Mac and ensures that it is held vertically facing towards the instrument. Direct the telescope towards the stsIf and using the focusing screen brings the staff clearly into focus. STEP III: the observer then read the figures on the staff and enters the Reading on the appropriate line and column in the field book BOOKING AND REDUCED LEVEL CALCULATIONS IN LEVELLING Booking and reduced level calculations in leveling can be computed using two methods namely: 1 The rise and Fall method 2. The height of the plane of collimation method THE RISE AND FALL METHOD From figure 4 to 10 and table 4.3 BS column is derived from all the back sight BS of leveling and the foresight FS is obtained from all the instrument fore sight. 30Rice column is obtained by subtracting BS from FS and if the result is positive is rise but if the result is negative is fall. Reduced level is obtained by adding a rice or subtracting a fall from the reduced level of the BS given ie bench mark, In figure 4.15 and table 4.9 it will be observed that an intermediate site IS IS during the leveling process. Note: to check if your computation and reduced level value is correct you use (BS) ~ X(PS) = ¥(Rise) — U(fall) = Last RI. ~ First RL THE HEIGHT OF THE PLANE OF COLLIMATION (HPC) METHOD is obtained from the The height of the plane of collimation, HPC is the height of the line of sight above datum, The rise/fall method should be used where a leveling involves a number of intermediate sights because the arithmetic check does check that every reduce level has been correctly calculated, where is the common HPC check does not HPC is calculated by adding the staff reading at a particular point to the reduced level of that point. The reduced level of any other point is calculated by subtracting the staff reading at the point froth HPC - The height of collimation is found as HPC= REDUCED LEVEL A * staff reading (BS) - The reduced level of every other point is found this: RL (any point) = - staff reading at that point. Example of HPC method is computed at figure 4.18 and table 4.3, table 4.14. From figure 4.18 and table 4.15, the reduced level was obtained from the following process (A) HPC (1) = reduced level BM + Staff reading (BS) = 35.27 + 1.56 = 36.83m (B) Reduced levels of stations A, B,C and D Reduced level A = 36.83 - 1.43 = 35.40m Reduced level A = 36.83 - 0.59 = 36.24m Reduced level A = 36.83 - 1.07 = 35.76m Reduced level A = 36.83 - 1.09 = 35.74m (C) HPC (2) = Reduced level (change point) ~ staff reading (BS) = 35.74 +2.35 = 38.09m (D) Reduced level E = 38.09 - 2.48 = 35.61m Reduced level F = 38.09 - 1.98 = 36.1 1m Reduced level E = 38.09 - 1.76 = 36.33m 31(E) HPC (3) = RLG + BSG = 36.33 + 0.95 = 37.28m RLH = HPC(3)- 37.28 - 0.74 = 36.54m HPC(4) = RLH + BSH 36.54 + 38.04m RCI = HPC(4) - IST = 38.04 - 1.35 = 36.69m RLJ = 38.04 - 1,50 = 36.54m RLK ~ 38.04 - 1.63 = 36.41m RLBM = 38.04 - 2.76 = 35.28m Arithmetic check (BS) — Z(RS) = Last RL - First RL ADJUSTMENT IN LEVELS There are basically wo types of adjustments in a level V2: the temporary and permanent adjustments 1. Temporary adjustment: the temporary adjustment are those adjustments in a levelling instrument such that the line of collimation as viewed from the eyepiece is truly horizontal Those adjustments are carried out in every setup of the levelling instrument and in some cases at every pointing of the telescope 2. Permanent adjustments: permanent adjustment is carried out in a situation where the line of collimation is not horizontal. It is important that an adjustment is carried out to make the collimation line horizontal when the instrument is leveled. Adjustment is undertaken at regular intervals during the working life of the level or theodolite SURVEYORS COMPASS : A prismatic compass or surveyors compass is a navigation and surveying Instrument used for determining course, way points and direction, calculating bearing of survey lines and calculated angles between them. COMPASS SURVEYING: is a type of surveying in which the directions of surveying lines are determined with a magnetic compass and the length of the surveying lines are measured with a tape or chain. The compass is the generally used to run a traverse line, The compass calculates bearing of lines with respect to magnetic North There are two main kinds of magnetic compass used in surveying which are the surveyors compass and prismatic compass. The surveyors compass is usually the larger and more accurate instrument and is generally used on a stand or tripod. The prismatic, compass is after small instrument which is held in the hand for observing, and is therefore employed for less accurate work. 32OE This surveyors compass consists of'a long thin, pointed needle of magnetized stay with a small conical- shaped bearing of agate material at the center the end of this needle which points north, the north end, is differentiated from the other end, the south end, by a small metal pin which passes horizontally through the needle hear it's month end. The agate bearing works on a pointed pivot of heard steel carried at the center of the low cylindrical metal box ( usomm in diameter). Attached to the opposite ends of this box are wo sighting vanes with two slow motion screws and clamps which enable a definite line of sight to be defined or laid out the instrument can either be screwed on to a tripod or remain hand- held for the purpose of measuring magnetic bearing THEODOLITE. Theodolites are precision instrument used extensively in construction work for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. A theodolite is generally classic Fred according to the method used to read the circles. There are two methods community in use today a) Optical micrometer b) Opto-electronic A) In optical micrometer: instrument the circle is graduate clockwise from 0° to 360°. It is read by projecting day light reflected by a mirror internally thought the glass scale via a system of prison and lenses to a reading telescope. B) Opto-electronic The gla circle of this type of instrument has a fine radial pattern of graduations round it's circumference and there are counted by an optional sensor. PARTS OF AN OPTICAL THEODOLITE. Figure 3.2 shows a diagram of an optical theodolite and labeling of its various parts. The various parts of the theodolite and their functions are described below 1) Vertical cirele: is used to obiain vertical circle reading. 2) Main telescope focus: this is the part of the telescope where lense arrangement is made, 3) Bye piece: this is an optical lense arrangement where object is sight. 4) Reflecting mirror: 5) Standards: are frames where bearing are carried out. 6) Plate level: this is fixed to the upper plate and identical to the level vial of an optical level. 7) Lower plate: this Carries the horizontal circle, 8) Horizontal circle: the horizontal circle is where the horizontal circle is obtained during field work. 9) Tribrach supports the reminder of the instrument. 10) Leveling foot screw is carried by the trivet and is used to level the theodolite. 11) Trivet is the base of the theodolite. 12) & (13) Lower plate clamp: use to hold or tight the lower plate 3314) Upper plate tangent serew and clamp this are used to tighten and adjust the upper plate of the theodolite. 15) Standard tangent screw: used to adjust the telescope, 16) Telescope clamp: this used to tighten the telescope. 17) Circle reading eye piece: is used to obtain the circle readings. 18) Micrometer serew: is used to adjust the microwave, 19) Telescope tangent screw: used to adjust the telescope. 20) Telescope objective: this is the other side of the telescope apart of the syspiece made of glass and lense. 21) 22) Optical plummet: optical plummet is use to do fine centering. 23) Circular bubble is used to center the bubble. CLASSIFICATION OF THEODOLITE Generally the optical reading theodolites are classified according their precision and they are of three types namely: 1) Low order theodolite. 2) Universal theodolite. 3) Geadetie theodolite. 1) Low order theodolite: these are theodolites with direct reading by single reading micrometer optical seals and reading approximated to 20° or less. They are used mainly for detailing, setting out engineering projects such as building, roads etc. They can be manual or electronic example are kernkos, Nifon NE 203, wild T16 etc 2) Universal Theodolites: these are theodolite that have the capacity angle to $ to 1 seconds They are mainly used by surveyors for third order triangulation and large scale surveys examples are wild 12, T1, DKM 2 ete. 3) Geodetic Survey: these instrument use the means of a coincidence of Optical micrometer to read angle directly. They are most precious theodolite. They are used for second and first order triangulation, deformation surveys of large engineering structure ete Examples are wild T4, DKM Sete. TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT ADJUSTMENT OF A THEODOLITE. 1) Temporary adjustment: these are all the drills needed to get the instrument ready for observation and they are carried out in every instrument setup temporary adjustment includes: i) Setting of the instrument accurately on the station using the plumb bob or the Optical plummet. ii) Leveling the instrument: this is the process of making the vertical Axis of the theodolite to be truely vertical. This is done by rotating the instrument until the bubble is parallel to two-foot serew use and two of the foot serious and the plate bubble, bring the bubble to centralize position. Then the instrument through 90° and use third foot screw to centralize the bubble. Rotate the 34instrument through 180° to reverse the bubble position the bubble should the remain Central then the theodolite is levelled, iii) Removal or elimination of parallax: parallax is the condition where by the real image is displaced from position but seem to be in position. To eliminate parallel. a focusing screw is attached to the telescope. The process points the telescope to the sky adjust the eye piece until the cross hair appears very sharp. Then turn the telescope to a distant object, use the focus screw to adjust until the image appear Sharp in the telescope then you would have removed parallex and observation commence 2) Permanent adjustment: these are adjustment that must be carried out in equipment and newly purchased or to be used for project after a long used. permanent adjustment includes: i) The transit axis should be perpendicular to the vertical Axis ii) The Line of sight should be perpendicular to the transit axis. this is known as horizontal collimation iii) The vertical Axis of the instrument should be truely vertical when the plate level bubble is central. This is known as plate level adjustment iv) When telescope is horizontal, the vertical circle should read zero and bubble should he Central MEASURMENT HOMZONTAL ANGLES USING THEODORE'S ‘The theodolite can be us in two positions namely a) Face left or circle left b) Face right or circle right The instrument is facing left when the vertical cirele is on the observers lefi as an object is lighted mode to sight the same object on the face right the observer must turn the instrument horizontally through is unit the eye piece is approximately pointing the target, Observation procedure in measuring Horizontal angles. P R Q [i 2 3 __i|4 Is | "| Observation Target Station | Face lett |Face right | Accepted mean |__| Station | reading reading angle {1 [o P [ 25°30! 20530" | R 90°55! 270°30! 65°25! 65925! 35In fig a horizontal angle PQR is to be measured. 1) Using the field hook (Table B), enter theodolite station Q in column I line 1 2) Enter the left hand Target station P in column 2. 3) Enter the right hand Target station 2 in column 2 line 4) Close the lower plate clamp of fitted, and do not touch it again. 5) Seat the whole on face left 6) Open the upper plate clamp and the telescope clamp. 7) Turn the instrument carefully towards the left hand Target P and sight using the auxiliary finder sight fitted to the telescope. Lock the upper plate clamp and telescope clamps. 8) Poems the telescope on the target. The cross wines will not be on the target but should be close use the slow motion screw on the upper plate clamp and telescope clamp to bisect the target accordingly. 9) Read the horizontal circle and note the reading (25° 30!) in column 3 line 1. 10) Repeat operations 6, 7, 8 and 9 for the right hand Target R, booking the horizontal circle readings (90° $5") in column 3 line 2 11) Subtract reading P from reading R (90° 55°) in column 3 line 3 12) Transit the telescope to set the instrument to face right and male preparation to re-measure the angle. 13) repeat operations 6, 7, 8 and 9, the left hand Target reading P (205° 30°) in column 4 line 1, ‘The reading should differ by 180° from that in column 3 line 1. if mizror present. 14) Report operations 6,7, 8, and 9, for the right hand Target, nothing the line (270° 55°) in column 4 line 2 15) Subtract reading P from reading R (270° 3 16) Calculate the mean angle and note in column 5 line 3. - 205° 30" 5S’) and note in column 4 line The table below shows the field measurement of four angles of transverse. Observation | Target Station | Face left Face right Mean angles | Solution reading reading B A | 899167207 269716'20"" a rm nis [18s"18"407 05°19'00"" i 7 96°02'20'" | 96%02!40" 96°02'30T | ic |B [Tasso | osH9"D0" _ [ dD 271°38!20" —_[ 91°38'40"" 85"58/40"" 8595972017 85°59'00" DO ie 275"18"00" sx1820" | A 01°02!20" 181%02!40'" 36 ES a0 g5°44!20" 8544!20" 85°44!'20"" A 00°00" 180°00'00" | - 7 92131307 272°15'30" 921593017 92157307 9215130" MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES USING THEODOLITE. Vertical angles are obtained from the vertical circle of the theodolite OBSERVATION PROCEDURE IN MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLE The procedure in measuring a vertical angle is as follows: 1) Set the theodolite to face left 2) Release the vertical and horizontal clamp 3) Sight the target using the find sight and look the clamp 4) Focus the telescope on the target. The cross-hairs, will not be on the target but should be close use the slow motion screws to bisect the target accurately 5) Take the vertical circle reading 6) Change the instrument to face right and repeat operations 2, 3.4 & 5. CALCULATION OF MEAN VERTICAL ANGLE The face left and face right reading are on opposite sides of the vertical angle to obtain the mean vertical angle an equivalent angle to the face Left ready is calculated by subtraction The face right reading from 360° and the mean to calculated as follow Face right reading =277"s0!04"! Equivalent face right reading 82"09!56!! Face left reading = 82"10!04!! T64°20°00"! = 82°10'00"" MAPS AND PLANS. Map can be defined as the geographical representations on paper the carth surface using conventional symbols Or ‘A map can be defined as a selective. symbolized and generalized feature/picture of some distribution of a large area usually on the earth surfaces as seen from about at a much reduced scale. Plans is a true to scale representation of what is either on the ground or what is proposed. The difference between maps and plans is that every element in the plan must be dram to the scale while a map is dram to such small scale that some of the features on it cannot be dram to scale, 37een acne aie NR, TYPES OF MAPS. There are many types of maps. Usually map are classified according to their content or the aspect of the earth surface they present the information, The types of maps are: ‘ 1) Topographical maps: there are maps that share general information about vegetation, natural and man-made features, relief, drainage, towns, roads many other thing that could be easily seen ‘on ground. They are produced from aerial photogrammetry/satellite technology. They are used for planning and distribution of infrastructures 2) Route’ Guide maps: they are maps that share routes and important places. They help to know directions and distances between towns and aids in-store and tourist to obtain location. 3) Theodolite maps: these maps showing monogenety. It shows mainly one particular feature. Examples are population maps, vegetation maps rainfall maps, transport maps etc 4) Statistical maps: statistical maps are maps that uses mathematical and statistical method to show an occurrence, The advantage of this type of map lies in the fact that with the ease of inspection a summary of situation can easily be determined. Statistical maps can be deduced using pie charts, bar charts, line graph ete 5) AtmoSphereanaps: these are maps that show atmosphere condition of an area. Examples are rainfall maps, temperature maps, map showing ocean current ete. MAP SCALE Maps seale can be defined, as the ratio of what is on ground to what is on paper i.c the ratio of the dimension on drawing to the equivalent full- size measurement on site. The choice of map scale is determined at the price- survey stage and will depend on the purpose for which the survey is being made. ‘The amounts of information of details that can be included in a map depend on the map scale there only three ways to represent scales a map. 1) Representative fraction (RP): this is an expression of map scale as a fraction or ratio. There the numerator is always constant while the denomination represents the actual distance on the ground. Examples 1/2500, 1/100,000, or 1/2500, 1:100,000. 1/2500 means Icm on paper (map) represents 2500cm on ground. 2) The statement scale: this simply refers to a statement of the relationship that exists between the distance on paper (map) and distance on ground 3) Linear scale: linear scale is obtained in a map when they are two divisions the primary division to the right and secondary division to the left, between left side and right division is zero, distance can only be measured on it by use of divider. The choice of map scale is the function of the purpose of the map. The common map seale used are i) Architectural work, working drawing. location drawing. have 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200. and assembly detail drawing will 38ji) civil engineering work, site plan. key plan, Surreys and lay out Will have 1:500, 1:1000, 1:1250, 1:2000, 1:2500. “highway and route survey wii have 1:2500, | 5000, 1:10,000, 1:20000, and Town survey 1:50000. iv) Maps will have 1:25000, 1:50000, 1:100000, 1 200000, 1:500000, 1:1600000. Generally map scale are classified as i) Small scale: 1:200000 to 1:250000 ii) Medium seale: 1:50000 to 1:100000 iii) Large seale: 1:25000 to 1:50000. MAPS, CONVENTIONAL SIGNS AND SYMBOLS. Maps are expected to comnmunicate to the users and this can be achieved by understanding conventional signs and symbol and such colors used in the map These signs and symbols may Harry from one country to another. Signs? symbols and colours are included in the key of a map to case understanding and interpretation of the map by user. Accepted symbols used by map makers home the follow characteristics. 1) ft should be literate enough and not to lead to guess work. 2) Tt must be clear and sufficiently precise 3) It must be legible enough for understanding 4) Every symbol must be inform throughout a services of map. Symbols are usually designed in a map to show the rehefleater bodies, vegetation, settlement (urban are rural settlements), name of places. comnunication ( roads, railways electric cables. water pipes ete). 39«OO. Example of maps convectional signs and symbols are stated below: Chain line [Triangulation station Traverse station Building [Shed with open side Shed with closed side ‘Temple, mosque and church Path Unfenced road Fenced rand Railway line: Single Railway line: Double Road bridge Level crossing | neato ncaa f= Boundarie without pillars Dasari with pillars Township or taluka ———— fanny [> a — - Electric line —e—_e—— a °y $929 pecha rd . aah? tate ieee Faee Geaie eee ; Lf epegis®, — rttersas* Embankment North line 40METHOD OF SHOWING RELIEF. 1) The shape of the ground, hills, and valle: roads. .¢ relief can be shown on maps in the following These dré lines that indicate the direction of water when it flows from high ground to how ground, In steep slops they are closely spaced. They are drawn perpendicular to the contour line from the highest point of mountain to the foot hachures are only used in areas where there are features.2) Spot height | Z a1° Stop heights are used to determine heights above sea level or any datum line, Spot heights and used to indicate heights of the ground above the sea level by using numbers. They help to reduce the problem of finding exact height of a know spot. Spot heights is a precious way of showing relief ofa place. 3) Form lines: these are broken lines which are drawn on map to show the form of the land They only give form of relief on a land scape but does not give accurate heights of such places. 4) Contour: contour lines are curved lines drawn on map to show points of the same height above adatum. OR Contour lines is a line joining all points of equal heights. Contouring is the most usual way of showing relief or shape of ground on a modern map. Contours ean also be used to represent features such as slopes, valleys, mountains, ridges ete by many of their shape. arrangement and numbering. The advantage of using contour to show relief is that it shows the different types of slops and general land from because where contour is close together i's a steep slope’s and when they are far apart it is an even area. NOTE: PRACTICAL ON MAP INCLUDES. © Map interpretation © Plan interpretation * Distance measurement from map & plant. «Reading of directors & beany from plant & map. a2PRACTICAL ON CHAIN SURVEYING INCLUDES. © Cham surveying, booking & plotting of at least an hectare. PRACTICAL ON LEVELING INCLUDES. © Carry out levelling reduetion and adjustment of at least 2km. PRACTICAL ON THEODOLITE INCLUDES. © The use of Theodolite for measuring and setting out angles MAP REFERENCE AND INTERPRETATION. A standard Map contains enough information that it can easily communicate to user. This is achieved with some information such as latitude and longitude key panels legends, titles, the true north magnetic North and margins. The lofigitude and latitude true north and magnetic north are very strong tools for locating positions and directions from any Map-latitude and longitude are expressed in meters, decimal degree. Every place on the surface of the earth has a definite co-ordinate this make latitude and longitude a strong tool for map referencing. The true north and magnetic North is used mainly to determine, direction on the map. The north is always indicated on the right hand side of any map. The true north i.e. north the North Pole and this make it possible for other direction to be indicated from it. Compass and angular bear can be used to determine directions on the map. 43