UNIT – IV

PART – A
1. What are the functions of ribs and spars?

Spars:-
The wing spars which are large I-beams that run most of the span of wing, with heights that
reach from the bottom to the top surface of the wing. The spars are basically cantilever beams
extending from the fuselage carry through structure.

Ribs:-
The spars the run along the span of the wing, and the airfoil section that help to form the
shape of the wing, these airfoil shapes are called the wing ribs.

2. Differentiate between monocoque and semi-monocoque construction.

Monocoque:-

A structure in which the outer skin carries the primary stresses and is free of internal bracing.

Semi-monocoque:-

An aircraft structure in which the outer skin in inadequate to carry the primary stresses, and
is reinforced by frames, formers and longerons.

3. State the uses of titanium in aircraft industries.

• Titanium has a better strength-to-weight ratio than aluminium and retains its strength at higher
temperatures.

• Supersonic aircraft have to use titanium because of the skin temperatures due to
aerodynamic heating.

4. Enumerate the composite materials.

Composite materials are bringing about a revolution in aircraft structures because for the
same load the composite structure can yield at least a 25% reduction in weight. Composite materials
are quite different from metals in both their composition and physical properties.

5. State the uses of aluminium alloys in aircraft industry.

Composite materials are bringing about a revolution in aircraft structures because for the
same load the composite structure can yield at least a 25% reduction in weight. Composite materials
are quite different from metals in both their composition and physical properties.

5. State the uses of aluminium alloys in aircraft industry.

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 ❖ Aluminium is readily formed and machined, reasonable cost, corrosion resistant, and has an
excellent strength to weight ratio.

❖ It is pure form, aluminium is too short for aircraft use.

6. What are the different types of fuselage structure?

1. Monocoque shell
2. Geodetic construction
3. D-Spar construction
4. Box-Spar construction
5. Semi-monocoque

7. What is box truss structure?

A box truss is a structure composed of three or more chords connected by transverse and/or
diagonal structural elements.

Box trusses are commonly used in certain types of electric power pylons, large ratio
antennas, and many bridge structures.

8. What is monocoque shell?

Monocoque is a construction technique that supports structural load using an object’s

external skin. This stands in contrast with using an internal framework (or truss) that is then covered
with a non-load-bearing skin. Monocoque construction was first widely used in aircraft, starting in
the 1930s.

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 PART – B

1. Types, characteristics, and uses of Titanium and its alloys.

Titanium and titanium alloys are used chiefly for parts that require good corrosion resistance,
moderate strength up to 600oF, and lightweight.

Types, Characteristics, and uses

Titanium alloys are being used in quantity for jet engine compressor wheels, compressor
blades, spacer rings, housing compartments, and airframe parts such as engine pads, ducting, wing
surfaces, fire walls, fuselage skin adjacent to the engine outlet, and armor plate. In view of titanium’s
high melting temperature, approximately 3,300oF, its high-temperature properties are disappointing.
The ultimate and yield strengths of titanium drop fast above 800 oF. In applications where the
declines might be tolerated, the absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air at temperatures
above 1,000oF makes the metal so brittle on long exposure that it soon becomes worthless.
Titanium has some merit for short-time exposure up to 2,000oF where strength is not important, as
in aircraft fire walls. Sharp tools are essential in machining techniques because titanium has a
tendency to resist or back away from the cutting edge of tools. It is readily welded, but the tendency
of the metal to absorb oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen must never be ignored. Machine welding
with an inert gas atmosphere has proven most successful. Both commercially pure and alloy
titanium can absorb large amounts of cold-work without cracking. Practically anything that can be
deep drawn in low-carbon steel can be duplicated in commercially pure titanium, although the
titanium may require more intermediate anneals.

Identification of Titanium:-

Titanium metal, pure or alloyed, is easily identified. When touched with a grinding wheel, it
makes white spark traces that end in brilliant white bursts. When rubbed with a piece of glass,
moistened titanium will leave a dark line similar in appearance to a pencil mark.

2. Write a short note on composite material.

Composites are materials consisting of a combination of high-strength stiff fibers embedded

in a common matrix (binder) material; for example, graphite fibers and epoxy resin. Composite
structures are made of a number of fiber and epoxy resin laminates. These laminates can number
from 2 to greater than 50, and are generally bonded to a substructure such as aluminum or
nonmetallic honeycomb. The much stiffer fibers of graphite, boron, and Kevlar® epoxies have given
composite materials structural properties superior to the metal alloys they have replaced.

The use of composites is not new. Fiber glass, for example, has been used for some time in
various aircraft components. However, the term application for naval aircraft.

Composite materials are replacing and supplementing metallic materials in various aircraft
structural components. The first materials were used with laminated fiber glass radomes and
helicopter rotor blades. In recent years, the replacement of metallic materials with more advanced
composite materials has rapidly accelerated. This has become particularly evident with the advent

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of the F/A-18, AV-8B, SH-60B, and CH-53E aircraft; and it is anticipated that composite materials
will continue to comprise much of the structure in future aircraft. As a result, there is a growing
requirement to train you in the use of advanced composite materials.

There are numerous combinations of composite materials being studied in laboratories and
a number of types currently used in the production of aircraft components. Examples of composite
materials are as follows: graphite/epoxy, Kevlar®/epoxy, boron poly-amide, graphite polyamide,
boron-coated boron aluminum, coated boron titanium, boron graphite epoxy hybrid, and
boron/epoxy. The trend is toward minimum use of boron/epoxy because of the cost when compared
to current generation of graphite/epoxy composites. Composites are attractive structural materials
because they provide a high strength/weight ratio and offer design flexibility. In contrast to traditional
materials of construction, the properties of these materials can be adjusted to more efficiently match
the requirements of specific applications.

Figure: Sandwich construction

However, these materials are highly susceptible to impact damage, and the extent of the
damage is difficult to determine visually. Nondestructive inspection (NDI) is required to analyze the
extent of damage that the effectiveness of repairs. In addition, repair differs from traditional metallic
repair techniques.

3. Discuss the monocoque and semi-monocoque construction.

There are two general types of fuselage construction-welded steel truss and monocoque
designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some
helicopters. The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to carry
various loads. The monocoque design may be divided into three classes-monocoque,
semimonocoque, and reinforced shell ! The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame
assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary
stresses. Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the
fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength
while keeping the weight within limits. ! Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight
problem of monocoque construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and

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bulkheads, the semimonocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members. !
The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members.
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes. Most are
considered to be of semimonocoque-type construction. The semimonocoque fuselagies
constructed primarily of aluminimum alloy, although steel and titanium are found in high-temperature
areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several
points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as
stringers.

Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The vertical structural
members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are
located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads. These members are also found at points where
fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings and stabilizers. The stringers are smaller
and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for
giving shape and for attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and
formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. All of these join together to form a rigid
fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from
bending the fuselage. The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and the stresses
sustained at particular location.

4. Write a short note on wings structure.

Wings develop the major portion of the lift of a heavier-than-air aircraft. Wing structures carry
some of the heavier loads found in the aircraft structure. The particular design of a wing depends
on many factors, such as the size, weight, speed, rate of climb, and use of the aircraft. The wing
must be constructed so that it holds its aerodynamics shape under the extreme stresses of combat
maneuvers or wing loading. Wing construction is similar in most modern aircraft. In its simplest
form, the wing is a framework made up of spars and ribs and covered with metal. The construction
of an aircraft wing is shown in figure. Spars are the main structural members of the wing. They
extend from the fuselage to the tip of the wing. All the load carried by the wing is taken up by the
spars. The spars are designed to have great bending strength. Ribs give the wing section its shape,
and they transmit the air load from the wing covering to the spars. Ribs extend from the leading
edge to the trailing edge of the wing. In addition to the main spars, some wings have a false spar
to support the ailerons and flaps. Most aircraft wings have a removable tip, which streamlines the
outer end of the wing. Most NAVY aircraft are designed with a wing a wing referred to as a wet
wing. This term describes the wing that is constructed so it can be used as a fuel cell. The wet wing

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is sealed with a fuel-resistant compound as it is built. The wing holds fuel without the usual rubber
cells or tanks. The wings of most naval aircraft are of all metal, full cantilever construction. Often,
they may be folded for carrier use. A full cantilever wing structure is very strong. The wing can be
fastened to the fuselage without the use of external bracing, such as wires or struts. A complete
wing assembly consists of the surface providing lift for the support of the aircraft. It also provides
the necessary flight control surface.

Note: The flight control surfaces on a simple wing may include only ailerons and trailing edge flaps.
The more complex aircraft may have a variety of devices, such as leading edge flaps, slats, spoilers,
and speed brakes. Various points on the wing are located by wing station numbers (fig). Wing
station (WS) 0 is located at the centerline of the fuselage, and all wing stations are measured (right
or left) from this point (in inches).

Figure:

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 PART – C

1. Types, characteristics, and uses of aluminium and its alloys.

Commercially pure aluminum is a white, lustrous metal, light in weight and corrosion resistant.
Aluminum combined with various percentages of other metals (generally copper, manganese,
magnesium, and chromium) form the alloys that are used in aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys
in which the principal alloying ingredients are either manganese, magnesium, or chromium, or
magnesium and silicon, show little attack in corrosive environments. On the other hand, those alloys
in which substantial percentages of copper are used are more susceptible to corrosive action. The
total percentage of alloying elements is seldom more than 6 or 7 percent in the wrought aluminum
alloys.

Types, characteristics, and uses

Aluminium is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to
the aviation industry because of its high strength/weight ratio, its corrosion-resisting qualities, and
its comparative ease of fabrication. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight.
In color, aluminium resembles silver, although it possesses a characteristic bluish tinge of its own.
Commercially pure aluminum melts at the comparatively low temperature of 1,216oF. It is
nonmagnetic, and is an excellent conductor of electricity.

Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000 psi, but by rolling or other
cold-working processes, its strength may be approximately doubled. By alloying with other metals,
together with the use of heat-treating processes, the tensile strength may be raised to as high as
96,000 psi, or to well within the strength range of structural steel.

Aluminum alloy material, although strong, is easily worked, for it is very malleable and ductile.
It may be rolled into sheets as thin as 0.0017 inch or drawn into wire 0.004 inch in diameter. Most
aluminum alloy sheet stock used in aircraft construction ranges from 0.016 to 0.096 inch in
thickness; however, some of the larger aircraft use sheet stock that may be as thick as 0.0356 inch.

One disadvantage of aluminum maybe divided into two classes-casing alloys (those suitable
for casting in sand, permanent mold, and die castings) and the wrought alloys (those that may be
shaped by rolling, drawing, or forging). Of the two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used in
aircraft construction, being used for stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
Casting alloys are not extensively used in aircraft.

Wrought Alloys:-

Wrought alloys are divided into two classes-nonheat treatable and heat treatable. In the
nonheat-treatable class, strain hardening (cold-working) is the only means of increasing the tensile
strength. Heat-treatable alloys may be hardened by heat treatment, by cold-working, or by the
application of both processes. Aluminum products are identified by a universally used designation

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system. Under this arrangement, wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys are designated
by a four-digit index system.

The first digit of the designation indicates the major alloying element or alloy group, as shown
in table. The lxxx indicates aluminum of 99.00 percent or greater; 2xxx indicates an aluminum ally
in which copper is the major alloying element; 3xxx indicates an aluminum alloy with manganese as
the major alloying element; etc. Although most aluminum alloys contain several alloying elements,
only one group (6xxx) designates more than one alloying element.

In the 1xxx group, the second digit in the designation indicates modifications in impurity limits.
If the second digit is zero, it indicates that there is no special control on individual impurities. The
last two of the four digits indicate the minimum aluminum percentage. Thus, alloy 1030 indicates
99.30 percent aluminum without special control on impurities. Alloys 1130, 1230, 1330, etc., indicate
the same aluminum purity with special control on one or more impurities. Likewise, 1075, 1175,
1275, etc., indicate 99.75 percent aluminum.

Table:

Aluminum – 99.00 percent minimum and greater …………………… 1xxx

Aluminum alloys, grouped by major alloying element:

Copper ………………………………………………………………………2xxx
Manganese ………………………………………………..……………… 3xxx
Silicon ……………………………………………………………………… 4xxx
Magnesium ……………………………………………………………… 5xxx
Magnesium and silicon ……………………………………………………6xxx
Zinc ………………………………………………………………………… 7xxx
Other elements …………………………………………………………… 8xxx

In the 2xxx through 8xxx groups, the second digit indicates alloy modifications. If the second
digit in the designation is zero, it indicates the original alloy, while numbers 1 through 9, assigned
consecutively, indicate alloy modifications. The last two of the four digits have no special
significance, but serve only to identify the different alloys in the group.

The temper designation follows the alloy designation and shows the actual condition of the
metal. It is always separated from the alloy designation by a dash.

The letter F following the alloy designation indicates the “as fabricated condition, in which no
effort has been made to control the mechanical properties of the metal,

The letter O indicates dead soft, or annealed, condition.

The letter W indicates solution heat treated. Solution heat treatment consists of heating the
metal to a high temperature followed by a rapid quench in cold water,

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 This in an unstable temper, applicable only to those alloys that spontaneously age at room
temperature. Alloy 7075 may be ordered in the W condition.

The letter H indicates strain hardened, cold-worked, hand-drawn, or rolled. Additional digits
are added to the H to indicate the degree of strain hardening. Alloys in this group cannot be
strengthened by heat treatment, hence the term nonheat-treatabel.

The letter T indicates fully heat treated. Digits are added to the T to indicate certain variations
in treatment.

Greater strength is obtainable in the heat-treatable alloys. They are often used in aircraft in
preference to the nonheat-treatable alloys. Heat-treatable alloys commonly used in aircraft
construction ( in order of increasing strength) are 6061, 6062, 6063, 2017, 2024, 2014, 7075, and
7178.

Alloys 6061, 6062, and 6063 are sometimes used for oxygen and hydraulic lines and in some
applications as extrusions and sheet metal.

Alloy 2017 is used for rivets, stressed-skin covering, and other structural members.

Alloys 2024 is used for airfoil covering and fitting. It may be used wherever 2017 is specified,
since it is stronger.

Alloy 2014 is used for extruded shapes and forgings. This alloy is similar to 2017 and 2024
in that it contains a high percentage of copper. It is used where more strength is required than that
obtainable from 2017 or 2024.

Alloy 7178 is used where highest strength is necessary, Alloy 7178 contains a small amount
of chromium as a stabilizing agent, as does alloy 7075.

Nonheat-treatable alloys used in aircraft construction are 1100, 3003, and 505. These do not
respond to any heat treatment other than a softening, annealing effect. They may be hardened only
by cold-working.

Alloy 1100 is used where strength is not an important factor, but where weight, economy, and
corrosion resistance are desirable. This alloy is used for fuel tanks, fairings, oil tanks, and for the
repair of wing tips and tanks.

Alloy 3003 is similar to 1100 and is generally used for the same purposes. It contains a small
percentage of manganese and is stronger and harder than 1100, but retains enough work ability
that it is usually preferred over 1100 in most applications.

Alloy 5052 is used for fuel lines, hydraulic lines, fuel tanks, and wing tips. Substantially higher
strength without too much sacrifice of workability can be obtained in 5052. it is preferred over 1100
and 3003 in many applications.

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 Alclad is the name given to standard aluminum alloys that have been coated on both sides
with a thin layer of pure aluminum. Alclad has very good corrosion-resisting qualities and is used
exclusively for exterior surfaces of aircraft. Alclade sheets are available in all tempers of 2014, 2017,
7075, and 7178.

2. Explain in detail the main group of materials used in aircraft construction.

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Titanium and titanium alloys are used chiefly for parts that require good corrosion resistance,
moderate strength up to 600oF, and lightweight.

Types, characteristics, and uses

Titanium alloys are being used in quantity for jet engine compressor wheels, compressor
blades, spacer rings, housing compartments, and airframe parts such as engine pads, ducting, wing
surfaces, fire walls, fuselage skin adjacent to the engine outlet, and armor plate. In view of titanium’s
high melting temperature, approximately 3,300oF, its high-temperature properties are disappointing.
The ultimate and yield strengths of titanium drop fast above 800 oF. In applications where the
declines might be tolerated, the absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air at temperatures
above 1,000oF makes the metal so brittle on long exposure that it soon becomes worthless.
Titanium has some merit of short-time exposure up to 2,000oF where strength is not important, as
in aircraft fire walls. Sharp tools are essential in machining techniques because titanium has a
tendency to resist or back away from the cutting edge of tools. It is readily welded, but the tendency
of the metal to absorb oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen must never be ignored. Machine welding
with an inert gas atmosphere has proven most successful. Both commercially pure and alloy
titanium can absorb large amounts of cold-work without cracking. Practically anything that can be
deep drawn in low-carbon steel can be duplicated in commercially pure titanium, although the
titanium may require more intermediate anneals.

Identification of Titanium:

Titanium metal, pure or alloyed, is easily identified. When touched with a grinding wheel, it
makes white spark traces that end in brilliant white bursts. When rubbed with a piece of glass,
moistened titanium will leave a dark line similar in appearance to a pencil mark with an inert gas
atmosphere has proven most successful. Both commercially pure and alloy titanium can absorb
large amounts of cold-work without cracking. Practically anything that can be deep drawn in low-
carbon steel can be duplicated in commercially pure titanium, although the titanium may require
more intermediate anneals.

Copper and Copper Alloys

Most commercial copper is refined to a purity of 99.9 percent minimum copper plus silver. It
is the only reddish-colored metal, and it is second only to silver in electrical conductivity. Its use as
a structural material is limited because of its great weight. However, some of its outstanding
characteristics, such as its high electrical and heat conductivity, in many cases overbalance the
weight factor. Because it is very malleable and ductile, copper is ideal for making wire. In aircraft,

10
copper is used primarily for the electrical system and for instrument tubing and bonding. It is
corroded by salt water, but is not affected by fresh water. The ultimate tensile strength of copper
varies greatly. For cast copper, the tensile strength is about 25, 000 psi; and when cold-rolled or
cold-drawn, its tensile strength increases, ranging from 40,000 to 67,000 psi.

BRASS.-

Brass is copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron, lead, manganese,
magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin. Brass with a zinc content of 30 to 35 percent is very
ductile, while that containing 45 percent has relatively high strength. “Muntz metal” is a brass
composed of 60 percent copper and 40 percent zinc. It has excellent corrosion-resistant qualities
when in contact with saltwater. Its strength can be increased by heat treatment. As cast, this metal
has an ultimate tensile strength of 50, 000 psi and can be elongated 18 percent. It is used in making
bolts and nuts, as well as parts that come in contact with salt water. “Red brass,” sometimes termed
bronze because of its tin content, is used in fuel and oil line fittings. This metal has good casting
and finishing properties and machines freely.

Bronzes.-

Bronzes are copper alloys containing tin. The true bronzes have up to 25 percent tin, but
those below 11 percent are most useful, especially for such items as tube fittings in aircraft. Among
the copper alloys are the copper aluminum alloys, of which the aluminum bronzes rank very high in
aircraft usage. They would find greater usefulness in structures if it were not for their strength/weight
ratio as compared with alloy steels. Wrought aluminum bronzes are almost as strong and ductile
as medium-carbon steel, and posses a high degree of resistance to corrosion by air, salt water, and
chemicals. They are readily forged, hot-or cold-rolled, and some react to heat treatment. These
copper-based alloys contain up to 16 percent of aluminum (usually 5 to 11 percent) to which other
metals such as iron, nickel, or manganese maybe added. Aluminum bronzes have good tearing
qualities, great strength, hardness, and resistance to both shock and fatigue. Because of these
properties, they are used for diaphragms and gears, air pumps, condenser bolts, and slide linears.
Aluminum bronzes are available in rods, bars, plates, sheets, strips, and forgings. Cast aluminum
bronzes, using about 89 percent copper, 9 percent aluminum, and 2 percent of other elements, have
high strength combined with ductility, and are resistant to corrosion, shock, and fatigue. Because
of these properties, cast aluminum bronze is used in gun mounts, bearings, and pump parts. These
alloys are useful in areas exposed to salt water and corrosive gases. Manganese bronze is an
exceptionally high-strength, tough, corrosion-resistant copper zinc alloy containing aluminum,
manganese, iron, and occasionally nickel or tin. This metal can be formed, extruded, drawn, or
rolled to any desired shape. In rod form, it is generally used for machined parts. Otherwise it is
used in catapults, landing gears, and brackets. Silicon bronze is composed of abut 95 percent
copper, 3 percent silicon, and 2 percent mixture of manganese, zinc, iron, tin, and aluminum.
Although not a bronze in the true sense of the word because of its small tin content, silicon bronze
has high strength and great corrosion resistance and is used variably.

Beryllium Copper

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 Beryllium copper is one of the most successful of all the copper-based alloys. It is a recently
developed alloy containing about 97 percent copper, 2 percent beryllium, and sufficient nickel to
increase the percentage of elongation. The most valuable feature of this metal is that the physical
properties can be greatly stepped up by heat 1-33 treatment-the tensile strength rising from 70,000
psi in the annealed state to 200,000 psi in the heat-treated state. The resistance of beryllium copper
to fatigue and wear makes it suitable for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball cages,
spring washers, and nonsparking tools.

Monel

Monel, the leading high-nickel alloy, combines the properties of high strength and excellent
corrosion resistnace. This metal consists of 67 percent nickel, 30 percent copper, 1.4 percent iron,
1 percent manganese, and 0.15 percent carbon. It cannot be hardened by heat treatment; it
responds only ot cold-working. Monel, adaptable to castings and hot- or cold- working, can be
successfully welded and ahs working properties similar to those of steel. It has a tensile strength of
65, 000 psi that, by means of cold-working, may be increased to 160, 000 psi, thus entitling this
metal to classification among the tough alloys. Monel has been successfully used for gears and
chains, for operating retractable landing gears, and for structural parts subject to corrosion. In
aircraft, Monel has been used for parts demanding both strength and high resistance to corrosion,
such as exhaust manifolds and carburetor needle valves and sleeves.

K-Monel

K-Monel is a nonferrous alloy containing mainly nickel, copper, and aluminum. It is produced
by adding a small amount of aluminum to the Monel formula. It is corrosion resistant and capable
of hardening by heat treatment. K-Monel has been successfully used for gears, chains, and
structural members in aircraft that are subjected to corrosive attacks. This alloy is nonmagnetic at
all temperatures. K-Monel can be successfully welded.

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium, the world’s lightest structural metal, is a silvery-white material weighing only two-
thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium does not possess sufficient strength in its pure state for
structural uses; but when ti is alloyed with zinc, aluminum, and manganese, it produces an alloy
having the highest strength/weight ratio. Magnesium is probably more widely distributed in nature
than any other metal. It can be obtained from such ores as dolomite and magnetite, from
underground brines, from waste liquors of potash, and from seawater, With about 10 million pounds
of magnesium in 1 cubic mile of seawater, there is no danger of a dwindling Supply. Magnesium is
used extensively in the manufacture of helicopters. Its low resistance to corrosion has been a factor
in reducing its use in conventional aircraft. The machining characteristics of magnesium alloys are
excellent. Usually the maximum speeds of machine tools can be used with heavy cuts and high
feed rates. Power requirements for magnesium alloys are about one-sixth of those for mild steel.
An excellent surface finish can be produced, and, in most cases, grinding is not essential. Standard
machine operations can be performed to tolerances of a few ten-thousandths of an inch. There is
no tendency of the metal to tear or drag. Magnesium alloy sheets can be worked in much the same
manner as other sheet metal with one exception-the metal must be worked while hot.

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 The structure of magnesium is such that the alloys work harden rapidly at room temperatures.
The work is usually done at temperatures ranging from 450oF, which is a disadvantage.

However, compensations are offered by the fact that in the ranges used, magnesium is more
easily formed than other materials. Sheets can be sheared in much the same way as other metals,
except that a rough flaky fracture is produced on sheets thicker than about 0.064 inch. A better
edge will result on a sheet over 0.064 inch thick if it is sheared hot. Annealed sheet can be heated
to 600oF, but heard-rolled sheet should not be heated above 275 oF. A straight bend with a short
radius can be made by the Guerin process, as shown in figure 1-24, or by press or leaf brakes. The
Guerin process is the most widely used method for forming and shallow drawing, employing a rubber
pad as the female die, which bends the work to the Sharpe of the male die. Magnesium alloys
possess good casting characteristics. Their properties compare favorably with those of cast
aluminum. In forging, hydraulic presses are ordinarily used; although, under certain conditions,
forging can be accomplished in mechanical presses or with drop hammers. Magnesium embodies
fire hazards of an unpredictable nature. When in large sections, its high thermal conductivity makes
it difficult to ignite and prevents its burning. It will not burn until the melting point is reached, which
is approximately 1,200oF, However, magnesium dust and fine chips are ignited.

3. Write a note on types of fuselage structure.

1) Box truss structure

The structural elements resemble those of a bridge, with emphasis on using linked triangular
elements. The aerodynamic shape is completed by additional elements called formers and stringers
and is then covered with fabric and painted. Most early aircraft used this technique with wood and
wire trusses and this type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel
tube trusses. This method is especially suitable for amateur-build aircraft kits, where a complete
welded truss structure is delivered with the fitting of other components, covering, and finishing
completed by the user, as it ensures that a robust, uniform load bearing structure is within the
completed aircraft.

2) Geodetic construction

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Airframe geodetic fuselage structure exposed by battle damage

Geodetic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the
wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In
this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral
directions, forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and hand the
advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was
used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types.
The geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic
failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers
Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of
this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the
grain in differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

3. Monocoque shell

In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical
early form of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of
plywood are formed over a “plug” or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth
impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this
used in some amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass
covering, eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see
the Rutan VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito
fighter/light bomber of World War II . It should be noted that no plywood-skin fuselage is truly
monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads
that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative (“female”)
molds (which give a nearly finished product) is prevalent in the series production of many modern
sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large
passenger aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner (using pressure molding on female molds).

14
Semi-monocoque

This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frame
in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture, or jig. These frames
are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered
with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The
fixture is then disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out
with wiring, controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large
aircraft are built using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which
are then joined with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product
is determined largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large
number of identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglass
Aircraft DC-2 and DC-3 civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft
are constructed using this process.

Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as “stressed skin” structures as all or
a portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as
the engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is
carried (as skin tension) by the external skin

15
Figure: Construction of the wing for the Dc-10. (McDonnell Douglas Corp.)

16
Figure: The internal structure of a modern transport wing. (Lockheed California Co).
Stops the yaw.

17
Control surfaces

1. Winglet
2. Low-Speed Aileron
3. High-Speed Aileron
4. Flap track fairing
5. Kruger flaps
6. Slats
7. Three slotted inner flaps
8. Three slotted outer flaps
9. Spoilers
10. Spoilers-Air brakes

18
 UNIT – V
PART - B
Rocket Engines

The gas turbine and reciprocating internal combustion engines are both air-breathing power
plants. They ingest air from the surrounding atmosphere and use the oxygen in the air as the
oxidizer for the chemical burning process that extracts the heat energy from the fuel. Only the fuel
is carried aboard the vehicle. A rocket is a device that burns fuel and an oxidizer, both of which are
carried by the vehicle. The forward thrust is obtained by applying a rearward momentum to the
products of combustion, the mass of which is clearly limited by the weight-carrying capacity of the
vehicle. Therefore, to obtain as large a thrust as possible with a given mass flow, the rearward
velocity must be as large as possible. A rocket is the only means of obtaining thrust in a vacuum or
near vacuum such as exists outside or neat the outer edge of the atmosphere.

There are two basic types of rockets, liquid propellant rockets and solid propellant rockets.
Liquid propellant rockets employ liquid propellants that are fed under pressure from tanks into the
combustion chamber. A schematic diagram of a liquid propellant system is shown in figure. The
propellants consist of a liquid oxidizer, such as liquid oxygen, red fuming nitric acid, or hydrogen
peroxide, and a liquid fuel (e.g., gasoline, ammonia, or liquid hydrogen).

In the combustion chamber the propellants react to form hot gases at high pressure, which
in turn are accelerated and ejected at a high velocity through a nozzle. The momentum imparted to
the gases per unit times equal to the thrust developed by the rocket.

19
Figure: Simplified schematic diagram of a
liquid, propellant rocket system. From Sutton and Ross, Rocket Propulsion Elements, 1976.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, New York.

A liquid rocket propulsion system is relatively complicated since it requires several precision
valves, a complex fed mechanism with propellant pumps and turbines, or a propellant p[pressurizing
device.

Solid propellant rockets contain all the propellant within the combustion chamber. This type
of rocket is simple since a feed system, valves or pumps are not required. Solid rockets are usually
limited to short-duration firing (1/10 to 25 s). Long-duration solid rockets require excessively large
and heavy combustion chambers. Solid propellant rockets have been widely used for jet-assisted
takeoff (JATO) purposes for aircraft with marginal takeoff performance, as well as for the initial
launch and acceleration of missiles and spacecraft. Figure shows a cross section of a solid
propellant rocket motor.

20
 The solid propellant charge contains all the chemical elements necessary for complete
combustion. The propellants usually have a plastic like caked appearance and burn on their
exposed surfaces to form hot exhaust gases at a nearly constant rate. The body of the propellant
is called the grain. The grain may be a heterogeneous mixture of several chemicals, for example a
mixture of oxidizing crystals of per chlorate in a matrix of an organic, plastic like fuel such as asphalt.
It may be a homogeneous charge special chemicals, such as modified nitrocellulose-type gun
powder.

Figure: Sectional view of typical solid propellant rocket motor.

The shape, size, and exposed burning surface of the grain influence the burning
characteristics of the rocket and largely determine the operating pressure in the combustion
chamber, the thrust, and the duration.

Rocket motor performance

Consider a rocket in flight as shown in Figure. Assume that the rocket is operating in a
vacuum without gravitational forces. The only forces acting on the rocket are the reaction to the
exhaust gases being expelled through the rocket nozzle and the nozzle exit pressure acting over
the exit area, Se.

From Newton’s second law, the time rate of change of linear momentum of a body, in this
case the exhaust gases, is proportional to the force acting on it. Therefore, the force on the exhaust
gases is

dm
F1 = Ve
dt

where

F1 = force, N (lb)
dm/dt = mass flow rate of the exhaust gases, kg/s (slugs/s)

21
 Ve = exhaust gas velocity relative to the rocket, m/s (ft/s)

Since a rocket is designed to maintain essentially constant temperature and pressure in the
combustion chamber or reservoir, the flow is similar to the supersonic wind tunnel flow discussed in
Chapter 7.

Figure: Rocket in flight.

The combustion chamber pressure is always high enough to obtain sonic velocity at the throat
or minimum section of the nozzle. The equation of Chapter 7 apply, and for a given exit area the
exit velocity is constant.

From Newton’s third law, the force imposed on the exhaust gas by the rocket engine is equal
to the force exerted on the engine by the exhaust gases. The later is the major part of the thrust.
The other component is the pressure term given by p eSe, so the total thrust, in a vacuum, is

dm
F = Ve + p e Se
dt

If the rocket motor were immersed in the atmosphere at V0 = 0 and with zero thrust (Ve = 0),
atmospheric pressure p0 would act on all surfaces and the net pressure effect would be zero. If the
rocket is then ignited, all the pressures remain the same except at the nozzle exit, where the
pressure will be determined by the throat area, the exit area S e, and the combustion chamber
(reservoir) pressure in accordance with the one-dimensional compressible fluid equations in Chapter
7. The additional force due to pressure is then

F = (pe − p0 ) Se

and the total thrust is

dm
F = Ve + (pee − p0 ) Se
dt

Because of the relationship between Se, Ve, and pe, maximum thrust is obtained when the
exhaust pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. A rocket nozzle design that permits the
expansion of the propellant products to the pressure of the surrounding fluid is said to have an
optimum expansion ratio. An exit area differing from the optimum area will result in less rocket
thrust, although the loss is small for quite large deviations from the optimum area. Since most

22
rockets experience very large variations in atmospheric pressure along their flight path, exit area is
designed for an intermediate altitude that produces the most efficient overall performance for the
rocket powered vehicle.

The effective exhaust velocity is defined by the equation

F
Ce =
dm / dt

The effective exhaust velocity is a fractious velocity equal to the actual exhaust velocity plus
the increment in exhaust velocity that would produce the thrust increment actually contributed by
the pressure term (pe-p0)Se.ce is equal to the actual exhaust velocity when pe = p0.

An important performance parameter for rockets is specific impulse or specific thrust. It can
be defined as the thrust that can be obtained with a propellant weight flow of 1 unit per second. It
is the reciprocal of specific fuel consumption. Thus

F
specific impulse Isp =
( dm / dt ) g

Since, from equation, F = c e ( dm / dt ),

Ce
Isp =
g

The total impulse It is the Integral of thrust F over the operating duration t.

t t  dm 
It =  F dt =  Isp   g dt
0 0
 dt 

For constant thrust,

 dm 
It = Ft = Isp   gt = Isp Wp
 dt 

where Wp is the total weight of propellant, N (lb).

Thus the performance of a rocket depends primarily on specific impulse, which, in turn, is
proportional to the effective exhaust velocity ce. The magnitude of ce for chemical rockets ranges
from 2000 m/s (6562 ft/s) to 4000 m/s (13,123 ft/s), with a typical value of about 3048 m/s (10,000
ft/s).

The exhaust velocity for a particular rocket can be determined from equation.

23
 Ve2
c p Te + = c 0TT
2

so

 T 
Ve = 2c p ( TT − Te ) = 2c pTT 1 − e 
 TT 

( −1)
Since Te / TT = (pe / pT ) ( equation), and cp = R / (  − 1)( equation).

2RTT   p ( −1) /  
Ve = 1 −  e  
 −1   pT  
 

From equation, we can see that the exhaust velocity is a function of T T, pe/pT, and the
constants R and . TT is a function of the chemical reaction of the fuel and the oxidizer. Any fuel-
oxidizer combination at a particular pressure will burn at a particular temperature determined by the
heat of reaction and called the adiabatic flame temperature. Thus T T depends primarily on the
propellant mixture. PT is dependent on the nozzle throat area and the mass flow rate at which the
rocket fuel and oxidizer are consumed. This, in turn, is determined by the rate at which the pumps
drive fuel into a liquid rocket engine combustion chamber or by the burning surface area in a solid
propellant rocket combustion chamber. The exit pressure pe is determined by the rocket exit area,
which is usually designed to bring the exit pressure equal to the ambient pressure at the average
height during the burning phase of the rocket flight path.

The other two factors in equation are the constants R and . Unfortunately, the values we
have been using so far for R and  are applicable only to a particular gas, air. The gas constant R
is more generally defined as the universal gas constant R divided by the molecular weight of the
gas, M. Thus

R
R=
M

where R, the universal gas constant = 8314 J/K-kg mole.

The molecular weight of air is 28.96.  is not really a constant at all, because the composition
and temperature of the gas are changing as the gas flows through the rocket motor. However, for
preliminary design of rockets,  is often taken as some average between 1.2 and 1.35.

Table 17.1 shows the combustion chamber temperature, the molecular weight of the products
of combustion, the exhaust velocity, the resulting specific impulse, and  for several rocket fuel-
oxidizer combinations. We can see from equation that a fuel-oxidizer combination with a high value
of R, which results from a low molecular-weight M, and a high TT will increase the exhaust velocity

24
and therefore will be more efficient. Other factors must also be considered. Hydrogen-fluorine, for
example, suffers from being extremely corrosive and toxic. The choice of a rocket fuel must be
made not only on the basis of its performance but also after consideration of the difficultly of
designing the storage tanks, the pumps and piping that bring the fuel the difficulty of designing the
storage tanks, the pumps and piping that bring the fuel to the motor, the motor itself, and the threat
to personnel handling the equipment.

Note that the specific impulse as calculated for Table is simply V e/g. this is because the
assumed rocket has been designed so that the exit pressure is equal to the ambient pressure (i.e.,
pe = p0 in equation). Also, the ratio of pT to pe has been taken as 68.03. this corresponds to a
combustion chamber pressure of 1000 lb/in2. at sea level, a combination widely used to compare
rocket engine performance.

The use of equation to determine rocket motor performance is shown in the following
example.

Example:

A rock motor using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as the fuel and oxidizer has a
combustion chamber temperature and pressure of 2700 K and 25 atm, respectively. The rocket
motor throat area is 0.07 m2. The exit area is designed for a standard pressure altitude of 17 km. 
may be assumed as 1.26.. The exit molecular weight of the combustion products is 9.5.

Table: Typical properties of several liquid rocket propellants

Fuel- Combustion Molecular

oxidizer chamber weight of
Ve, m/s Isp, s 
combination temperature combustion
K products
Kerosene- 3555 21.9 2788 28.5 1.24
oxygen
Hydrogen- 3869 11.8 3774 385 1.33
fluorine
Hydrogen- 2689 8.9 3760 384 1.26
oxygen

apT/pe = 68.03; sea level, pe = po.

At the design altitude of 17 km, calculate the exit velocity, specific impulse, and the thrust of
the engine. Also determine the Mach number and the area at the exit.

Solution: Since the rocket is designed for an altitude of 17 km, the nozzle exit area will be designed
to give an exit pressure equal to the ambient pressure at 17 km. From Table A.1. this pressure is,
by interpolation, 8852 N/m2.

The chamber pressure is 25 atm (i.e.. 25 times the sea-level standard pressure). Thus pT =
25 x 101, 325 = 2.533, 125 N/m2. the given problem is then

25
From equation,

   p ( −1) /  
Ve = 2 RTT 1 −  e  
 −1   pt  
 

R 8314
R= = = 875.2 and =1.26
M 9.5

Then

1.26   8852 (1.26−1) / 1.26 

Ve = 2 ( 875.2)( 2700 ) 1 −   
1.26 − 1   2.533,125  
= 3971.79m / s

Since the nozzle is designed with pe = p0, Isp is from equation, where ce = Ve.

Ve 3971.79
Isp = = = 405.29s
g 9.8

From equation.

 / ( −1) ( −1) / 
pe  Te  T p 
=  so that e =  e 
pT  Tt  TT  pT 

and

(1.26−1) / 1.26
 8852 
Te = 2700   = 840.3K
 2,533,125 

26
 Then the speed of sound at the nozzle exit is

ae = RTe = 1.26 ( 875.2)( 840.3 ) = 962.62m / s

and

Ve 3971.79
Me = = = 4.126
ae 962.62

The area of the exit is found from equation. Note that figure is not applicable since we are
not working with air and  is not.

2 ( +1) / ( −1)
 Se  1  2   − 1 2 
 * = 2  1+ Me  
 l 
S Me   + 1  2 
2.26 / 0.26
1  2  0.26 2 
=  2.26  1 + 2 ( 4.126 )   = 517.5
( 4.126 )  
2


and

Se = Sl* 517.5 = 0.07 ( 22.75 ) = 1.592m2

Thrust = Ve (dm/dt), so we must find dm/dt, the mass flow rate.

dm
= peSe Ve
dt
p 8852
pe = e = = 0.0121kg kg/m3
RTe ( 875.2 )( 840.3 )

Then

dm
= 0.0121(1.592)( 3971.79 )
dt
= 76.51 kg/s

and

thrust = ( 3971.79 )( 76.51)

= 303,879N
= 68,318lb

Propulsion-Airframe integration

27
 Propulsion-airframe integration is the process of locating the power plants and designing their
installation to meat many operating requirements while minimizing drag and weight penalties. The
arrangement of the propulsive units influences aircraft safety, structural weight, flutter, drag, control,
maximum lift, propulsive efficiency, maintainability, and aircraft growth potential.

For prop-driven aircraft, the propeller requirements almost always place the engines on the
wing or, for single-engine airplanes, at the fuselage nose. An unusual design used in converting a
small piston-engine-powered commuter airplane from a twin-engine configuration to a trimotor was
to place the center engine on the vertical tail. A recent trend in turboprop executive aircraft has
been to place the engines on the rear portion of the wing. The pusher propellers, at the rear of the
engines, are behind the aft bulkhead of the passenger cabin. The latter is actually the fundamental
design objective because it reduces the noise and vibration in the cabin caused by the propellers.
Because the engines are so far aft, the center of gravity is also far aft, and the moment arm of the
horizontal tail is small. For this reason, longitudinal control.

A Canadian division of Part & Whitney, United Technologies, is Prat & Whitney Canada
(PWC). Figure summarizes the PWC product line. This company produces several engines, all of
which are also discussed in this chapter.

General Electric Axial compressor Engines

Another major manufacturer of both large and small axial-flow gas turbines in this country is
the General Electric Company. One of their most highly produced machines is the J79 series Fig.
currently used in the McDonnel Douglas F-4 and formerly used on the General Dynamics B-58 and
other aircraft. A commercial version of this engine was called the CJ805-3, and an affan counterpart,
the CJ805-23 Fig. was used in the Convair 880 and the Convair 990, respectively, but it was never
widely accepted. Three points worth noting about thee engine are the ariable-angle inlet guide
vanes, the variable-angle first six stator stages in the compressor (see chap. 5) and the location and
method of driving the fan in the CJ805-23 engine. The fan, located in the rear, is “gas coupled” to
the primary engine as opposed to the mechanical coupling used in many of the Pratt & Whitney
designs and others. Placing the fan in the rear and having it gas coupled is claimed to compromise
basic engine performance to a lesser degree. In addition, the engine can be accelerated faster, and
the aft-fan blades are automatically anti-iced by thermal conduction. Forward fan designers claim
fewer problems resulting from foreign-object damage, since most of the foreign material will be
thrown radically outward and not passed through the rest of the engine. Furthermore, they claim
that the forward fan in the cold section of the engine for highest durability and reliability and minimum
sealing problems.

As an interesting aside, General Electric’s venture into the ultra-high-bypass-ratio propfan

area is based on their aft-fan concept. A General Electric F404 engine was modified by placing a
multistage, free-power turbine at the rear of the engine; this turbine was then attached to counter
rotating, wide-chord, carbon/epoxy composite fan blades. The engine, called Unducted Fan (UDF),
was never put into production but remains a viable competitor among propfan designs.

28
 In addition to its aft-fan designs, General Electric also produces a high-bypass-ratio, forward-
fan engine called the TF39 Fig., which powers the Lockheed C5A and B Galaxy, one of the largest
airplanes in the world.

From the TF39, General electric has developed a series of engines using the same basic gas
generator (core) portion of the engine, but it has changed the fan and the number of turbines needed
to drive the fan. The CF6 series is installed in the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and MD-11, the Airbus
Industrie A-300 and A-310, and the Boeing 747 and 767. The Rockwell International B-1 Bomber
uses the General electric F101, a medium-bypass turbofan. A low-bypass General Electric turbofan
engine is the F404, used in the McDonnell Douglas/Northrop F-18 Fig, while the General Electric
F110 (fig) is installed in the General Dynamics F-16. A no afterburning derivative of the General
Electric F110, the F18-GE-100, powers the Northrop B-2, and the General Electric 90B1 Fig. is
slated for the Boeing 777.

Like Pratt & Whitney, General Electric manufactures a series of smaller gas turbine engines.
The CJ610, or J85 Fig. is used in the early Gates Lear Jet, Northrop Talon T38 (F5), and the early
Jet Commander. The Jet Commander, now made in Israel, is called the West wind 1124 and Astra
1125 and is powered by the Allied Signal Garrett TFE731 engine Fig. As might be expected,
General Electric has developed an aft-fan version of the CJ610 called the CF700 (fig), two of which
are installed on many models of the Falcon fanjet.

In addition to the turbojet and turbofan engines, General Electric manufactures the T58 (fig)
and the T64 Fig. Both are free-power turbine engines, a major difference being the location of the
power take-off shaft, and are used to power a variety of Sikorsky and Boeing helicopters.

The TF34 Fig is one of General Electric’s small turbofan engines, driving the Lockheed S-3A
and the Fairchild Republic A-10 aircraft.

Other Axial Compressor Engines

Still other examples of axial-flow machines are the Allison Engine Company J71 Fig. which
powered the Douglas B-66, and the Allison Engine Company 501 series or T56 engine Fig., used in
the Lockheed Hercules and Electra, Grumman Hawkeye, Convair 580 Conversion, Lockheed C-
130, Lockheed P-3, and Grumman E-2C. Since the 501 is a turboprop, the compressor and the
load of the propeller require the use of many turbine wheels, a requirement typical of all
turboprop/turbofan designs. Although it was never put into production, the Allison Engine Company
has also designed an axial-flow turboprop engine incorporating a fixed regenerator.

British manufacturers have com up with some interesting variations of the axial-flow engine.
For example, the Fig. all three-spool turbofan engines. The RB211, in particular, has found wide
acceptance in this country and is used in the Lockheed L-1011; the Boeing 747, 757, 767, and 777;
and the Airbus Industrie A330. The Rolls-Royce spey Fig, which powers the DeHavilland Trident,
British Aerospace Corporation (B.A.C) One-Eleven, and engine with a mixed exhaust. The Rolls
Royce Tyne Fig. is a two-spool turboprop engine with an integral gearbox for use in the Caadair 44.
Rolls-royce, in collaboration with SNECMA of France, also builds the Olympus 593, one of the few
afterburning commercial engines, for use in the supersonic British Aerospace Aerospatiale
Concorde.

29
 The Oryx manufactured by D. Napier and Son Ltd., is another unusual design of British
manufacture. The power produced by the gas-generator section of the engine is used to drive
another axial-flow compressor. The airflow from both the gas generator and the air pump is mixed
together, resulting in an extremely high-volume airflow. The engine is specifically designed to drive
helicopter rotor blades by a jet reaction at the tips.

The Rolls-Royce/Bristol Produce is another form of engine designed to produce high-volume

airflows. Fan air and primary airflow are both vectored (directed) in an appropriate direction in order
to achieve the desired line of thrust. The engine is installed in the V/STOL Hawker Harrier.

Axial-Centrifugal Compressor Engines

As a group, the axial-centrifugal-flow engines exhibit the greatest variability and design
innovation. The AlliedSignal Garrett ATF3 is a perfect example Fig. All of the various permutations
and combinations of compressor design, number of spools, type of combustion chamber, single-
shaft versus free-power turbine, location of the power-takeoff shaft, etc., can be found on these
engines.

An important producer of axial-centrifugal engines in this country is AlliedSignal Lycoming

Fig. their T53 and T55 series engines Fig, in their several versions, have been designed for wide
application in both conventional and rotary wing aircraft. Both engines use the same basic concept
and arrangement of parts; the main difference is in the number of compressor and free-power turbine
stages. The mechanically independent free-power turbine drives a coaxial through-shaft to provide
cold, front-end power extraction. A feature of these engines is the reverse-flow combustion chamber
design mentioned previously.

Two later engines developed by AlliedSignal Lycoming are the LTS/LTP (fig) series of small
turboshaft/turboprop engines and the ALF502 (Fig). At the time of this writing, most turbofan engine
fans are either coupled to one of the compressors or to a group of turbines independent of the gas-
generator compressor turbine(s). Either case requires a compromise, since the best number of
revolutions per minute (rpm) for the fan is, in most cases, lower than the best rpm for the gas-
generator compressor (core engine) or any turbine wheel. In the ALF502, the fan is geared down,
like the propeller on many piston engines, so the low pressure turbine and high-bypass-ratio fan can
each turn at an appropriate rpm.

The highly produced and used Pratt & Whitney Canada (PWC) PT6A engine also uses a
reverse-flow combustion chamber. On this machine, the air enters toward the rear and flows
forward, with the power takeoff at the front. It is currently in use on many twin engine aircraft in
business and commuter operation, including the Beech Starship, Beech King Air, Shorts 360, the
Piper Aircraft Corp. Cheyenne, Cessna Conquest, a few Bell helicopters, and several foreign aircraft.
The engine has also been used to power the STP Special at the Indianapolis 500 race. Another
interesting design from PWC, also incorporation a reverse-flow combustion chamber to keep the
engine short, is the JT15d fig. used on the Cessna Citation. As can be seen in this chapter, many
other engine manufacturers use the reverse-flow burner concept in their designs.

30
 Allison Engine Company’s bid for the small turbine market, the T63 (model 250) fig. has an
axial-centrifugal compressor (some variations of this engine use only a centrifugal compressor) and
incorporates many unusual design features. For example, it can be disassembled in minutes with
ordinary hand tools, contains a single combustion chamber, and has an interchangeable gearbox.
The axial part of the compressor is only about 4.5 inch (in) diameter, and the engine weighs about
140 lb [64 kilograms (kg)] yet produces over 400 hp [298 kw] in some versions. The turbo shaft
variation of this engine is installed in the Hughes OH-6 Light Observation Helicopter (LOH), the Bell
Jet Ranger helicopter, and others. Figures 2-87 and 2-86 show two small turbofans, with an axial-
and centrifugal-style compressor: the Williams International FJ-44, which powers the Cessna
CitationJet, and the F107 Wr-400 used in the cruise missile.

Most small gas turbines use the free-power turbine method of driving the load, and the driving
the load, and the Boeing engine in Fig. 2-26 is no exception. Air is compressed by a single axial
stage, followed by a single centrifugal stage. The compressed air is mixed with fuel and ignited in
twin combustors. Hot gases then expand through the single-stage, gas-producer and power
turbines and exhaust through either a single-or double-exhaust nozzle.

GE is now producing an axial-centrifugal engine called the T700 (commercial version CT7)
Fig. This engine is designed to be installed in the Sikorsky Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft (UTTAS)
UH60A, the model 214 Bell helicopter, and the McDonnell Douglas Army Attack Helicopter (AAH)
AH64. It is sometimes fitted with an integral inlet particle separator located at the forward end.

An engine that shows great promise, and combines many of the design innovations
discussed at the beginning of the section on the axial-centrifugal compressor, is to AlliedSignal
Garrett TFE731 Fig. This machine is a medium-bypass, two-spool engine, with the geared front fan
coupled through a planetary gearbox to the low-pressure axial spool. The centrifugal-compressor,
high-pressure spool is driven by a single turbine. Reverse-flow combustion chambers are also used.
The engine will be found on late model Lear Jerts, the I.A.I. 124 Westwind, and other aircraft.

Once again, British designers and manufacturers have produced an unusual axial-centrifugal
flow engine. The Bristol Proteus Fig. incorporates a reverse-flow, axial-centrifugal compressor and
a two-stage, free-power turbine driving the propeller output shaft through a series of reduction gears.
The engine is used in the Britannia aircraft.

Mixed-Flow Compressor Engine

The mixed-flow compressor does not fall into any of the three main categories. The mixed-
flow design is similar in appearance to the single-entry centrifugal compressor, but The mixed-flow
compressor does not fall into any of the three main categories. The mixed-flow design is similar in
appearance to the single-entry centrifugal compressor, but the blade arrangement provides a
different type of airflow. The compressor receives its air axially, as do many other types, but it
discharges this air at some angle between the straight-though flow of the axial compressor and the
radial flow of the centrifugal compressor. The Fairchild J44 engine Fig. used this design.

Characteristics, Applications, comparisons, and evaluation of the turbojet, turboprop,

turbofan, and propfan engines

31
 By converting the shaft horsepower of the turboprop into pounds of thrust and the fuel
consumption per horsepower into fuel consumption per pound of thrust, a comparison between the
various engine forms can be made. Assuming that the engines have equivalent compressor ratios
and internal temperatures and that they are installed in equal-sized aircraft best suited to the type
of engine used, Fig. shows how the various engines compare in thrust and thrust specific fuel
consumption versus airspeed. As the graphs indicate, each engine type has its advantages and
limitations. Summaries of these characteristics and uses follow.

The Turbojet Engine

Which deals with engine theory, points out that a turbojet derives its thrust by highly
accelerating a small mass of air, all of which goes through the engine. Since a high “jet” velocity is
required to obtain an acceptable amount of thrust, the turbine of a turbojet is designed to extract
only enough power from the hot gas stream to drive the compressor and accessories. All of the
propulsive force produced by a jet engine is derived from the imbalance of forces within the engine
itself Fig.

The turbojet characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. Low thrust at low forward speeds

2. Relatively high, thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at low altitudes and airspeeds, a
disadvantage that decreases as altitude and airspeed increase
3. Long takeoff roll
4. Small frontal area, resulting in low drag and reduced ground-clearance problems
5. Lightest specific weight (weight per pound of thrust produced)
6. Ability to take advantage of high ram-pressure ratios

These characteristics suggest that the turbojet engine would be best for high-speed, high-
altitude, long-distance flights.

The Turboprop Engine

Propulsion in a turboprop engine is accomplished by the conversion of the majority of the

gas-steam energy into mechanical power to drive the compressor, accessories, and the propeller
load. Only a small amount (approximately 10 percent of “jet” thrust is available in the relatively low-
pressure, low-velocity gas stream created by the additional turbine stages needed to drive the extra
load of the propeller.

The turboprop characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. High propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds, which results in shorter takeoff rolls but falls off
rapidly as develop high thrust at low airspeeds because the propeller can accelerate large
quantities of air at zero forward velocity of the airplane. A discussion of propulsive efficiency
follows in the next chapter.
2. More complicated design and heavier weight than a turbojet
3. Lowest TSFC

32
 4. Large frontal area of propeller and engine combination that necessitates longer landing gears
for low-wing airplanes but does not necessarily increase parasitic drag
5. Possibility of efficient reverse thrust

These characteristics show that turboprop engines are superior for lifting heavy loads off
short and medium-length runways. Turboprops are currently limited in speeds to approximately 500
mph [805 km/h], since propeller efficiencies fall off rapidly with increasing airspeeds because of
shock wave formations. However, researchers in the Hamilton Standard division of United
Technologies Corporation and others are trying to overcome, or extend, this limitation by
experimenting with small diameter, multibladed, wide-chord propellers, said to be more efficient than
the high-bypass-ratio turbofan, with a 20 percent reduction in thrust-specific fuel consumption.
Aluminum blades large enough to deliver sufficient thrust and absorb high engine power and of the
right shape are also too heavy and flexible to resist straightening out from a curved and tapered
aluminum spar bonded to a fiberglass, airfoil-shaped shell filled with a plastic like foam material.
This composite construction produces a more rigid blade one-half the weight of a comparable
conventional aluminum blade. The obvious advantage is that the propeller hub and the pitch-
changing mechanism located within can be lighter and the blade will more closely maintain its correct
aerodynamic position.

The Turbofan Engine

The turbofan engine has a duct-enclosed fan mounted at the front or rear of the engine and
driven either mechanically geared down or at the same speed as the compressor, or by an
independent turbine located to the rear of the compressor drive turbine. Also illustrate two methods
of handling the fan air. Either the fan air can exit separately from the primary engine air (short duct),
or it can be ducted back to mix with the primary engine’s air at the rear (long duct). On some long
duct engines the primary and secondary airflow may be mixed internally and then exit from a
common nozzle, or the two gas streams may be kept separate for the entire length of the engine. If
the fan air is ducted to the rear, the total fan pressure must be higher than the static gas pressure
in the primary engine’s exhaust, or air will not flow. By the same token, the static fan discharge
pressure must be less than the total pressure in the primary engine’s exhaust, or the turbine will not
be able to extract the energy required to drive the compressor and fan. By closing down the area
of flow of the fan duct, the static pressure can be reduced and the dynamic pressure increased. For
a discussion of static, dynamic, and total pressure.

The efficiency of the fan engine is increased over that of the pure jet by converting more of
the fuel energy into pressure energy rather than the kinetic (dynamic) energy of a high-velocity
exhaust gas stream. As shown in chapter 3, pressure times the area equals a force. The fan
produces this additional force or thrust without increasing fuel flow. As in the turboprop, primary
engine exhaust gas velocities and pressures are low because of the extra turbine stages needed to
drive the fan, and as a result the turbofan engine is much quieter. One fundamental difference
between he turbofan and turboprop engine is that the airflow through the fan is controlled by design
so that the air velocity relative to the fan blades is unaffected by the aircraft’s speed. This design
eliminates the loss in operational efficiency at high airspeeds that limits the maximum airspeed of
propeller-driven aircraft.

33
 The first generation of turbofan designs, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT3D engine series,
had a bypass ratio of approximately 1:1; that is, about 50 percent of the air went through the engine
core as primary airflow, and about 50 percent went through the fan as secondary airflow. Second
generation turbofans like the General Electric CF6 (fig), the Pratt & Whitney JT9D (Fig.) and the
Rolls Royce RB211 Fig have bypass rations on the order of 5:1 or 6:1. the fan thus provides a
greater percentage of the total thrust produced by the engine.

In terms of actual airflow, Table shows the fan, or cold stream, airflow and the core, or hot
stream, airflow for an engine with a total airflow of 1000 lb/s at several different bypass ratios. Other
engines with different airflows will have different fan and core airflows for similar bypass ratios. For
example, for a 500 lb/s airflow engine, divide each fan and core airflow in half for a given bypass
ratio.

Emphasis on the use and development of the turbofan engine in recent years is due largely
to the development of the transonic blade. The large-diameter fan would require a much lower rpm
to keep the blade tips below the speed of sound, development that would not be conducive to good
gas turbine design.

Fan engines show a definite superiority over the pure jet engines at speed below Mach 1, the
speed of present-day commercial aircraft, which, of course, require small frontal areas. At high
speeds, the increased drag offered by the fan more than offsets the greater net thrust produced.
The disadvantage of the fan for high-speed aircraft can be offset at least partially by burning fuel in
the fan discharge air.

Table: Fan and core airflow for different bypass ratios.

Bypass Ratio Fan Airflow lb/s Core Airflow lb/s

6.00 858 143
5.00 834 167
4.00 800 200
3.00 750 750
2.00 667 333
1.00 500 500
0.75 429 572
0.50 333 667

This process expands the gas, and, in order to keep the fan discharge air at the same
pressure, the are fan jet nozzle is increased. This action results in increased gross thrust due to an
increase in pressure times an area, and increased thrust-specific fuel consumption. Very-low-
bypass-ratio turbofan engines (less than one) are being used on some fighter aircraft capable of
supersonic speeds.
The turbofan characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. Increased thrust at forward speeds similar to a turboprop results in a relatively short takeoff.
However, unlike the turboprop, the turbofan thrust is not penalized with increasing airspeed,
up to approximately Mach 1 with current fan designs.

34
 2. Weight falls between the turbojet and turboprop.

3. Ground clearances are less than turboprop but not as good as turbojet.

4. TSFC and specific weight fall between turbojet and turboprop, resulting in increased
operating economy and aircraft range over the turbojet.

5. Considerable noise level reduction of 10 to 20 percent over the turbojet reduces acoustic
fatigue in surrounding aircraft parts and is less objectionable to people on the ground. Also,
no noise suppressor is needed. On newer fan engines, such as the General Electric CF6
and Pratt & Whitney 4000 series shown in Figs. Others, the inlet guide vanes have been
eliminated to reduce the fan noise, which is considered to be a large problem for high-
bypass-ratio fan engines. The noise level is reduced by the elimination by the fan blades
cutting through the wakes behind the vanes. Other fan-noise-reducing features are also
incorporated.

6. The turbofan is superior to the turbojet in “hot day” performance.

7. Two thrust reversers are required if the fan air and primary engine air exit through separate
fan nozzles, the advantage of which is the short fan duct with corresponding low duct loss.

Jet Propulsion

It is the propulsion of jet aircraft or other missiles by the reaction of jet coming out with a high
velocity. The term jet propulsion is used where the oxygen is obtained from the surrounding
atmosphere. It consists of air plus combustion products. The principle of jet propulsion is obtained
from the application of Newton’s law of motion. It is nothing but reaction principle. Since all the air
craft engines breaths air from the surrounding atmosphere hence it is called air – breathing engines.
The air breathing engines are classified as:

(i) Turbojet engine

(ii) Turbo prop engine
(iii) Pulse jet (or) flying bomb and
(iv) Ram jet engine

Turbo Jet Engine

It is a most common type of air breathing engine whose essential features are shown in figure.

35
 Figure: Components of Turbo Jet Engines

This engine consists of inlet diffuser, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and an
exhaust nozzle. The function of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into
a static pressure rise. After this air enters to the compressor, (axial or centrifugal) which further
compresses the air to a very high pressure and delivers it to the combustion chamber. Then fuel
nozzle supplies fuel continuously and continuous combustion takes place at constant pressure. The
high pressure and high temperature gases then enters the turbine, where they expand partially to
provide drive power for the turbine. The turbine is directly connected the compressor and all the
power developed by the turbine is to drive the compressor and the auxiliary devices. After the gases
leave the turbine, they expand further in the exhaust nozzle and are ejected with a very high velocity
than the flight velocity to produce a thrust for propulsion.

The T – S diagram or ideal and actual cycle is shown in figure

36
 Figure:
i – 1  Inlet diffuser
1 – 2  Air
compressor
2 – 3  Combustion chamber
3 – 4  Turbine
4 – e  Nozzle or tail pipe

Advantages:

1. Lower frontal area due to the absence of fan. Therefore the drag is less
2. Suitable for long distance flights at higher altitudes and speeds.
3. Since this engine has a compressor it is capable of operating under static conditions.
4. Reheat can be possible to increase the thrust.
5. Lower weight per unit thrust at design speed and altitude.
6. Since a diffuser is at the inlet, part of the compression is done by it without any work input.

Disadvantages:

1. Propulsive efficiency and thrust are lower at lower speeds

2. Thrust specific fuel consumption is high at low speeds and altitudes.
3. It is not economical for short distance flights.
4. Long runway is required due to slower acceleration.
5. Sudden decrease of speed is difficult to achieve.

Applications:

Turbo jet engines are used in military aircrafts, guided missiles and piloted aircrafts, etc,

Turbo Prop Engine:

It is very similar to turbo jet engine , the major difference being that the turbine is designed
so that it develops shaft power for deriving a propeller to provide most of the propulsive thrust (90%),
and only a small amount jet thrust is produced in the nozzle is shown in figure.

37
 Figure: Components of Turbo – Prop Engine
The engine consists of a diffuser, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine, exhaust nozzle,
reduction gear and a propeller. The diffuser, compressor and combustion chamber functions are as
same as the turbo jet engine. However, in the turbo prop engine, the turbine extracts much more
power than the turbo – jet engine, because the turbine provides power for both the compressor and
the propeller. When all of this energy is extracted from the high temperature gases, only little energy
is left out for producing jet thrust. Thus the turbo – prop engine drives most of its propulsive thrust
from the propeller and drives only a small portion (10 to 25%) from the exhaust nozzle.

Since the shaft rotation speed of gas turbine engine is very high, a reduction gear must be
placed between the turbine shaft and the propeller to enable the propeller to operate efficiently.

Advantages:

1. Propulsive efficiency is very high.

2. The TSFC based on thrust is low
3. High acceleration at lower speed enables to a shorter run way.
4. Thrust reversal is possible by varying the blade angle, this gives the advantage of decreasing
the speed drastically.
5. Used for shorter distance travels. ( C < 600 Kmph)

Disadvantages:

1. Heavier propeller, compressor and turbine decreases pay load capacity.

2. A reduction gear is required to transmit the power from the turbine shaft to the propeller shaft.
3. If the speed of the engine increases above 600 Kmph, the efficiency drastically decreases.
4. The frontal area is being blocked on account of large diameter propeller which increases the
co – efficient of drag.
5. Engine is heavier and more complicated.

Ram Jet Engine:

38
 The simplest types of air – breathing engine is the Ram jet engine which is shown in figure.
The engine consists of a supersonic diffuser, subsonic diffuser section, combustion chamber and a
discharge nozzle section. The function of a supersonic and subsonic diffuser is to convert the kinetic
energy of the entering air into a pressure rise, called the “ram pressure”.

Air from the atmosphere enters the supersonic diffuser where in its static pressure increased
and the velocity of air is reduced. Then the air enters the subsonic diffuser it is compressed further.
The air then flows into the combustion chamber, where the fuel burners are located and here the air
is heated to a high temperature (16000 C to 20000 C) by the continuous combustion of fuel. The
highly heated products of combustion are then allowed to expand in the exhaust nozzle section and
are discharged from the engine with a speed greater than that of entering air. Because of the rate
of increase in momentum of the working fluid flowing through the engine, a thrust ‘F’ is developed
in the direction of flight.

Figure: Components of Ram Jet Engine

The cycle pressure ratio of ram jet engine depends upon its flight velocity; the higher the flight
velocity, the larger the ram pressure and consequently larger the thrust. Since the flight speed is
very high, the pressure rise in the diffuser (ram pressure) is very high and this eliminates the
compressor. Consequently the turbine is also eliminated, because, the function of a turbine in just
to run the compressor. Since the rum jet engine cannot operate under static conditions as there will
be no pressure rise in the diffuser, it is not self – operating at zero flight velocity. Therefore to attain
the required flight speed some kind of starting device must be required such as launching rockets.

Advantages:

1. Pay load capacity is very high due to the absence of fan, compressor and turbine.

39
 2. Its fuel consumption decreases with flight speed and approaches reasonable values when
the flight Mach number is between 2 to 4, and therefore, it is suitable for propelling supersonic
missiles.
3. Since the frontal area is less, the co – efficient of drag is low.
4. It increases the mechanical efficiency due to the absence of sliding and moving parts.
5. High temperature and pressure can be employed.

Disadvantages:

1. A starting device is required to propel ram jet up to supersonic speed.

2. Altitude limitation is there.
3. It has low thermal efficiency and high TSFC.
4. Due to high temperature of gas coming out from the nozzle, erosion occurs at the exit of the
nozzle.
Applications:

Uses as guided missiles and high supersonic speed aircrafts.

Pulse Jet or Flying Bomb:

Figure a pulse jet engine which consists of a inlet diffuser, valve grid (contains springs that
close on their own spring pressure), combustion chamber, spark plug and a discharge nozzle.

Figure: Components of Pulse Jet Engine

The function of a diffuser is to change the kinetic energy of the entering air into static pressure
rise by slowing down the air velocity. When a certain pressure drop exits across the valve grid, the
valves will open and allow the fresh air to enter the combustion chamber, where fuel is injected and
mixed with air. Hence combustion takes place with spark ignition. There is a rapid increase in

40
pressure, which causes the valve to close rapidly and surges the products of combustion rearward
into the nozzle, where they expand and escape with higher velocity than the entrance velocity. Thus
the thrust is produced at the nozzle exit.

Since firing in the combustor is intermittent and therefore intermittent thrust is produced. The
pulse – jet engine is a simple, cheap for subsonic flights and well adopted to pilot less aircraft.

Advantages:

1. It gives higher pay load capacity due to the absence of compressor, propeller and turbine.
2. It is simple in construction and cheap. It is suitable for subsonic flights.
3. Drag co – efficient is less due to smaller frontal area.
4. Due to the absence of sliding and moving parts mechanical efficiency is very high.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited flight speed and altitude.

2. Severe vibrations and high intensity of noise due to intermittent combustion.
3. Nozzle erosion occurs, due to the high temperature of gases coming out from the nozzle.

Thrust:

The force which propels the aircraft forward at a given speed is called propulsive force or
thrust. This propulsive force is mainly depends on the velocity of gases at the exit of the nozzle in
turbo jet engines and from the propeller in turbo prop engines.

Jet Thrust (Turbo Jet Engine)

The two section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 of an imaginary control surface for a turbo jet engine is shown
in figure. The flow of air (internal and external) is separated by the solid boundaries of the engine
casing.

41
 Figure: Flow of Gases in Turbo Jet Engine

Ambient air enters the jet engine at a pressure Pa and velocity ‘u’ and after expansion hot
gases leave from the nozzle at a pressure Pe and high velocity Ce. If Pe = Pa the expansion is
complete i.e., Ce = Cj (Jet velocity).

. . . 
Mass flow rate at inlet of the engine is ma and the mass flow rate at exit is  ma + mf  Kg/sec.
 
Part of the air flow at section 1 – 1 is swallowed by the jet engine and experiences change in
momentum flux, the remaining flows through the engine without any change in the momentum flux.
The net thrust on the engine = momentum thrust + pressure thrust

F = Fmom + Fpr

. .  .
Momentum thrust Fmom =  ma + mf  Ce - ma u
 

Pressure thrust Fpr = (Pe – Pa ) Ae

. .  .
 Net thrust F =  ma + mf  Ce - ma u + Ae (Pe – Pa)
 

Propeller Thrust:

Figure shows the air flow takes place across the propeller of a turbo prop engine. The air
flow pattern before and after the propeller is shown in figure. A flow boundary similar to the walls of
a duct which separates the fluid at rest and fluid in motion.

42
 Figure: Flow through a Turbo – Prop Engine

The pressure at section 1 – 1 and outside the boundary is ambient. Therefore, the thrust on
the propeller and the aircraft is due to the change in momentum flux between inlet and outlet section.

.
The thrust on the propeller F = ma (Cj – u)
Where Cj = Jet velocity and

u = flight speed

The flight to jet velocity ratio or effective speed ratio

u
=
Cj
.  u
Therefore, F = ma  C j 1 − 
 C j 
.
= ma Cj [ 1 -  ]

Propulsive, Thermal and Overall Efficiencies

The performance of an aircraft population system can be analyzed by various efficiencies.

Figure shows the utilization of power of the fuel in a turbo jet engine.

43
 Figure: Utilization of Power in Aircraft Propulsion

.
Power input to the engine (Fuel power) = mf Qf

Power output from the engine =

1 .
2
(
m C2j − u2 )
 Propulsive power (or) Thrust power F  u = (Pout – Pin)

Propulsive Efficiency ( p)

Propulsive power (or) Thrust power

Pr opulsive efficiency=
Power output of the engine

m ( Cj − u) u 2 ( Cj − u) u
.

= =
1 .
2
(
m C2j − u2 ) ( C + u) (C − u)
j j

2u
p =
Cj + u

Divide both Nr. and Dr. by ‘Cj’ the above equation becomes

2
p =
1+ 
2 2
p = =
1 C
1+ 1+ j
 u

44
Case (a): When the speed of air craft u = 0, the propulsive efficiency p = 0, but the specific thrust
is maximum. Maximum thrust is needed during take – off period.

Case (b): When the speed of aircraft equals to the speed of jet i.e., u = C j, p = 100%, but the
specific thrust is zero. Therefore ‘Cj’ must be always greater than ‘u’ when the aircraft is flying. In
normal conditions when the speed ratio () increases, the propulsive efficiency (p) will also
increases. The propulsive efficiency can be increased by increasing the jet velocity close to the
flight speed where as the thrust power can be increased by increasing the mass flow rate of air or
gas through the propulsive device. The propulsive efficiency versus speed ratio for turbo jet and
turbo prop engine is shown in figure.

Figure: Comparison of Turbo Jet Engines

Thermal Efficiency (th)

Power output of the engine

th =
Power input to the engine through fuel
1 .
m C2J − u2 
=2 .
mf Q f

Overall efficiency (0)

Propulsive power
th =
Power input to the engine through fuel

m (Cj − u) u
.

= .
mf Q f

45
Multiply both Nr. and Dr. by
1 .
2
( )
m C2J − u2 , the above equation becomes,

m (Cj − u) u
. 1 .
(
m C2J − u2 )
= 2 .
1 .
2
(
m C2J − u2 ) mf  Q f
0 = p  th

Specific Fuel consumption:

It is the ratio between fuel consumption rate per unit thrust. Since the output is in the form of
thrust, a thrust fuel consumption is

.
mf
TSFC =
F

It is an important parameter to compare the engine performance of different types of aircraft

propulsion systems.

Substituting equation we get,

u u
0 = .
= .
mf mf
 Qf  Qf
m (Cj − u)
.
F

u
=
TSFC  Qf
Specific Thrust:

It is defined as the thrust produced per unit mass flow rate through the propulsive device.

F
Fsp = .
m

It is an another useful parameter for comparing the different types of propulsion devices.

Specific Impulse:

It is defined as the thrust produced per unit weight flow rate through the propulsive device. It
is also an another useful performance parameter in aircraft propulsion devices.

46
 m (Cj − u)
.
F
Isp = .
= .
W mg
u  Cj 
=  − 1
g u 
u  1−  
= 
g   

Effect of Forward Speed:

The forward speed of the aircraft affects the compressor inlet pressure and temperature. As
flight velocity increases, inlet drag will be more and the net specific thrust is reduced using the
normal values of cycle variables. Therefore, propulsive efficiency is decreased.

Effect of Altitude:

At higher altitude, the ambient temperature and pressure is very less. This ambient air is not
sufficient to propel the aircraft engines. Therefore, the flight must fly at a designed altitude.

Thrust Augmentation:

To achieve better take – off performance, higher rates of climb and increased performance
at altitude during combat manoeuvres, there has been a demand for increasing the thrust output of
aircraft power plant for short intervals of time. The following methods of thrust augmentation for
turbo jet engines are:

(a) After - burning:

Burning additional fuel in the tail pipe between the turbine exhaust section and entrance
section of the exhaust nozzle is shown in figure.

Figure: After Burner

47
 This method of thrust augmentation increases the enthalpy of air entering the nozzle. Thus
the jet velocity at the nozzle exit is increased, resulting in increased thrust.

(b) Injecting Refrigerants:

Injecting refrigerants, water or water – alcohol mixture at some point between inlet and exit
sections of the air compressor. This method of thrust augmentation increases the mass flow rate of
air and decreases the compressor work.

48