FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Programme : CEEM222
Course : Applied Mechanics Lab
Course Code : MEC424
Lecturer’s Name : Nur Munirah Mustaza

Lab Report
Torsion Test

No. Name Student ID

1 ADIB SYAFIQA BINTI MOHAMMAD SAUFI 2021886242

2 DAYANG FAZERA BINTI AWANG SIMON 2021814944

3 ANIS FADHILLA BINTI AZHAR 2021859022

4 ENGKU AISYAH NUHA BINTI ENGKU MUHAMMAD FAIZ 2021887278

5 AMYZA BINTI MOHAMAD ISA 2021849914

Lab Session : _______________ Pengesahan Staf : _______________

(tarikh) (tanda tangan)

Submission : _______________ Pengesahan Staf : _______________

(tarikh) (tanda tangan)
Abstract

Torsion is a fundamental deflection property of a material that causes an object to

twist when a torque is applied. The experiment is conducted to understand the torsion
properties subjected to pure torque loading, through identifying the modulus of rigidity,G, the
maximum shear stress, the relationship between torque,T and angle of twist, θ, and the strain
energy per unit volume up to the limit of proportionality. This torsion test experiment is
carried out on rods made of mild steel which is a standard torsion application instrument with
in diameter 0.006m and 0.07148m in length . The rod is connected to a machine that
measures torque at one end, and the other end is attached to a chuck that is rotated by a
hand-operated carriage. Indicating the torque applied to the rod as it is twisted by the
hand-operated carriage, a digital torque sensor reads the torque and records it on software.
The rotational encoder is attached to the rod, and the digital output it provides to software
indicates the angle of twist that has developed in the rod relative to the applied torque. The
torque-twist data is used to compute the shear strain and the shear stress on the rod. The shear
modulus of elasticity (rigidity), can be calculated from the shear stress-shear strain relational
curve, as well as the proportionality limit and the yield limit for each applied torque.
According to the data taken, calculations , and graphs constructed based on theoretical
correlations, the torque is increasing faster than the other variables, which would cause it to
slowly get smaller until fracture of the specimen occurs.

2
Table of Content

No. Content Pages

1.0 Introduction 4

2.0 Theory 5

3.0 Methodology/Experimental Procedure 8

4.0 Results 9

5.0 Discussion 23

6.0 Conclusion 32

7.0 References 38

8.0 Appendix 39

a) List of figures:
Figure 1: Torsion test
Figure 2: Idea of Torsion 1
Figure 3: Idea of Torsion 2
Figure 4: Torque vs Angle of twist
Figure 5: Shear stress vs Shear strain
Figure 6: Torque (Nm) Vs Angle of Twist (rad)
Figure 7: Torque (Nm) Vs Angle of Twist (rad) in
linear
Figure 8: Shear Stress (Pa) versus Shear Strain
Figure 9: Torque (Nm) versus Angle of Twist (rad)
Figure 10: Shear Stress (Pa) versus Shear Strain
Figure 11: Graph of shear stress vs Shear strain
Figure 12: Typical Stress-Strain Curve
Figure 13: Torque (Nm) - Angle of Twist (rad)
curve
Figure 14: Torque (Nm) - Angle of Twist (rad)
linear
Figure 15: Torque (Nm) - Angle of Twist (rads)
linear
Figure 16: Experimental Shear Strain (MPa)-Shear
strain linear
Figure17-22: Apparatus of Torsion Test Experiment

b) List of tables:
Table 1: Table of Data

3
Introduction

Materials are occasionally torsion-exposed in numerous engineering applications,

including drive shafts, axles, and twisted drills. Additionally, torsion is arbitrarily applied to
structural components like bridges, springs, vehicle bodies, aeroplane fuselages, and boat
hulls. The materials employed here should have sufficient strength, but they also need to be
able to endure torque during operations. In this experiment of torsion testing, which involves
twisting a sample along an axis of a mild steel longitudinal sample. It's an effective way to
find out things like a material's torsional shear stress, maximum torque, shear modulus, and
breaking angle by some calculation and analysis from the data retrieved from the experiment.
The longitudinal mild steel sample is typically inserted, and one end of the sample is twisted
around the long axis until failure, at which point the force, or torque in the case of rotation,
and the displacement and its angular displacement are recorded.

Figure 1: Torsion test

4
Theory

In order to determine a connection between internal torque and the stresses it induces in
components with circular and tubular cross sections, it is necessary to make the following
assumptions:

1. A plane segment of material that is perpendicular to the axis of a circular member

remains plane after the torque is applied (notice that this is not true for massive
deformations).
2. Shearing stresses in a circular member exposed to torque vary linearly from the
central axis.
3. Shearing stress and strain are inversely correlated.

Torsion is defined in solid mechanics as the twisting of an object caused by an applied

torque. The unit of measurement is newton metres (Nm). Torsion happens whenever any
shaft experiences a torque. One part of a body will twist in respect to a nearby part due to
torque loading. When a member is subjected to a torque, it turns around its transverse axis.
The shaft might be stationary, such with a bolt or screw, or spinning, like drive shafts on
motors, turbines, and engines. Any cross section will experience shear stress as a result of the
shaft's torque-induced twisting and rotation at one end in relation to the other. In engineering,
shafts are frequently used to move power from one place to another. Failure may result from
shear alone or from shear combined with stretching or bending. As shown in figure 1, the
shaft, which is fixed at one end and free at the other, is subjected to a torque, T. Due to the
formation of complementary shear forces in the longitudinal planes, filament distortion
occurs.

Figure 2: Idea of Torsion

5
 In Figure 3, imagine a circularly cross-sectioned bar or shaft that has torque T
operating at both of its ends. In reference to the opposite end of the bar, one end will rotate.
The angle at which the cross section twists is known as the twist angle. A longitudinal
deformation that is angled, γ , along the shaft's length is also produced.

Figure 3: Idea of Torsion 2

A torque against angle of twist relationship can be used to calculate the modulus of rigidity or
shear modulus of the tested specimen:

𝑇 τ θ
𝐽
= 𝑅
= 𝐺 𝐿

Where:

𝑇 = Torque, Nm
𝐽 = Polar moment of area, m
τ = Shear stress, Nm
𝑅 = Radius of specimen, m
𝐺 = Modulus of rigidity, GPa
θ = Angle of twist, radians
𝐿 = Specimen gauge length, m

The outer surface of the material experiences the most shear stress, τ , which may be
calculated using the following formula:

𝑇𝑅 θ
τ= 𝐽
= 𝐺𝑅 𝐿

6
The following formula can be used to determine the shearing strain, γ , experienced over the
length of the shaft under test:

𝑅θ
γ= 𝐿

The other formulas that might involved in this experiment are as follows -

Angle of twist, θ:

𝑇𝐿
θ= 𝐽𝐺

Polar moment of area, 𝑚:

1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π𝑟

Modulus of rigidity, 𝐺𝑃𝑎:

τ
𝐺= γ

In addition, the relationship between the modulus of rigidity and modulus of elasticity within
the material's linear elastic range is described by Hooke's law, which relates the Poisson's
ratio of the tested material.

𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝑣)

Where:

𝑉 = Poisson’s ratio
𝐸 = Modulus of Elasticity

7
Methodology/Experiment Procedure

A mechanical test called a torsion test is performed to determine a material's torsional

properties. It entails applying a force to one end of a cylindrical object to twist it, then
measuring the resulting angle of twist at the other end. The general materials and procedures
for doing a torsion test are as follows :-

Materials :
- Torsion test machine
- Torque metre
- Vernier calliper
- Specimen with standardised dimensions

Procedure :
1) Measure the specimen's dimensions by measuring the diameter and length of the
object at various points along its length using a calliper.
2) Fixing the specimen to the torsion tester by fastening one end of the specimen to the
torsion testing machine and connecting the other end to a torque measurement device.
Ensure that the machine's axis and the torque-measuring tool are parallel to the
specimen.
3) Turn the specimen using a torque wrench at the prescribed torque to apply the torque.
Once the specimen reaches a steady-state condition, the torque should be given
gradually and consistently, and it should be allowed to deform under the torque.
4) Record the angle of twist for each incremental increase in torque.
5) Determine the shear strain and stress, use the following formula to get the specimen's
shear stress and strain :-
Shear stress = (torque x radius)/polar moment of inertia
Shear strain = (radius x angle of twist)/length of specimen
6) Plot the shear stress vs. shear strain curve using the data collected. Basically, the
curve will contain an elastic region (linear), followed by a plastic region (nonlinear).
7) Determine the material's yield strength, ultimate strength, and ductility by analysing
the results.

8
Results

Material = Mild steel

Diameter = 6 mm = 0.006 m
Length initial = 71.48 mm = 0.07148 m

Total
Angle of Angle of Angle of
Revolu Torque Angle of Shear stress Shear
rotation twist twist
tion (Nm) Rotation (Pa) strain
(°) (degree) (rad)
(degree)

0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.0000 0 0.00000

1/4 16.40 90 90 1.45 0.0253 386687565.4 0.00106

1/2 34.40 90 180 2.90 0.0507 811100747 0.00213

3/4 52.80 90 270 4.35 0.0760 1244945333 0.00319

1.5 71.40 90 360 5.81 0.1013 1683505653 0.00425

2.0 106.20 180 540 8.71 0.1520 2504037820 0.00638

2.5 110.95 180 720 11.61 0.2027 2616035745 0.00851

3.0 112.60 360 1080 17.42 0.3040 2654940236 0.01276

4.0 115.05 360 1440 23.23 0.4054 2712707586 0.01701

5.0 116.15 360 1800 29.03 0.5067 2738643947 0.02127

6.0 116.00 360 2160 34.84 0.6081 2735107170 0.02552

7.0 116.25 360 2520 40.65 0.7094 2741001798 0.02977

8.0 116.45 360 2880 46.45 0.8107 2745717500 0.03403

9.0 116.65 360 3240 52.26 0.9121 2750433202 0.03828

10.0 117.00 360 3600 58.06 1.0134 2758685680 0.04253

12.0 89.50 720 4320 69.68 1.2161 2110276653 0.05104

14.0 -22.20 720 5040 81.29 1.4188 -523442923.9 0.05955

Table 1: Table of Data

9
Adib Syafiqa binti Mohammad Saufi (2021886242)

Sample Calculation

1. Moment of Area/ Polar Moment, 𝐽

1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π𝑟
1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π(0. 003)
−10 4
𝐽 = 1. 272 × 10 𝑚

2. Shear Stress, τ ( at Torque = 16.40Nm )

𝑇𝑅
τ= 𝐽

(16.40)(0.003)
τ= −10
1.272 × 10

τ = 386792452. 8 𝑃𝑎
12
τ = 3. 867 × 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎

3. Angle of Twist, θ , (rad)

𝑇𝐿 2π
θ= 𝐽𝐺
𝑜𝑟 θ × ( 360 ) where θ is obtained directly from results.

From 1st rotation at 1/4rev with 1. 45° 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 :

2π
θ = 1. 45 × ( 360 )

θ = 0. 0253 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠

4. Shear Strain, γ

𝑅θ
γ= 𝐿

10
 (0.003)(0.0253)
γ= ( 0.07148)

γ = 0. 00106

5. Modulus of rigidity, 𝐺

Experimental value of shear modulus, 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 :

τ
𝐺= γ
@ slope from graph
386687565.4
𝐺= 0.00106

11
𝐺 = 3. 648 × 10 𝑃𝑎

Theoretical value of shear modulus, 𝐺𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 :

79𝐺𝑃𝑎 (American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 2022)

6. Percentage Error for Modulus of Rigidity of Mild Steel , % ,

( 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ) − ( 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ( 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )
× 100%

11 9
(3.648×10 ) − ( 79×10 )
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 9 × 100%
( 79×10 )

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 36. 2%

11
Graph

Figure 4: Torque vs Angle of twist

12
Figure 5: Shear stress vs Shear strain

13
Dayang Fazera Binti Awang Simon (2021814944)

Sample Calculation

1. Calculation of Moment of area/ Polar moment, 𝐽

1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π𝑟
1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π(0. 003)
−10 4
𝐽 = 1. 272345 × 10 𝑚

2. Calculation angle of twist (rads)

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡, ϕ (𝑟𝑎𝑑) = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡, ϕ (𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒) × ( )

2π
360

From 10th rotation at 6.0 rev with 34. 84° 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 :

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡, ϕ (𝑟𝑎𝑑) = 34. 84° × ( )

2π
360

= 0. 6081 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
3. Shear stress from data
𝑇𝑅
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠. τ = 𝐽

From 10th rotation at 6.0 rev with 116 Nm value of Torque, T:

τ=
116𝑁𝑚 ( 0.006𝑚
2 )
−10 4
1.272345×10 𝑚

τ = 2735107223 𝑃𝑎
Converting Pa to Mpa, thus shear stress,τ from data:
τ = 2735 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4. Calculation of shear strain, γ
𝑅θ
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, γ = 𝐿

From 10th rotation with 0.8107 rads value angle of twist, ϕ (rads):
(0.003 𝑚)(0.6081 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠)
γ= (0.07148 𝑚)

γ = 0. 02552

14
5. Determine modulus of rigidity, G of experimental value
τ
From data value, G = γ

2735107223
G= 0.02552

11
G = 1.07175 x 10 Pa

From plotted graph of Torque, T against angle of twist (rads):

𝑦2− 𝑦1
𝑚= 𝑥2− 𝑥1
, with (52.8,0.076) of intercept, thus

52.8
𝑚= − 0.076
=− 694. 7368
𝑇
Therefore 𝑚 = θ
=− 694. 7368
𝑇 𝐺θ
Then, from equation 𝐽
= 𝐿

𝑇𝐿
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 = 𝐽θ

𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 = ( )( )
𝑇
θ
𝐿
𝐽

Subs gradient, 𝑚 into equation

𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 = (− 694. 7368 ) ( 0.07148

1.272345×10
−10 )
11
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 =− 3. 90301 × 10 𝑃𝑎
𝐺 =− 390. 3𝐺𝑃𝑎

6. Calculation of percentage error

( 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) − (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = ( 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )
× 100%
−390.3𝐺𝑃𝑎−210𝐺𝑃𝑎
= 2107𝐺𝑃𝑎
× 100%

=− 86%
11 9
1.07175×10 −78 × 10
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 = 9 × 100%
78 𝑥 10

=− 0. 86%

7. Properties
Material = Mild steel

15
 Diameter = 6 mm = 0.006 m
𝐿 = 71.48 mm = 0.07148 m

𝐿1 = 10.28 mm = 0.01028 m
9
Manufacture modulus of rigidity/elasticity, G = 210 GPa or 78 × 10 𝑃𝑎
Actual Yield strength, γ = 370 MPa

16
Anis Fadhilla Binti Azhar (2021859022)

Graph :

Figure 6: Torque (Nm) Vs Angle of Twist (rad)

Figure 7: Torque (Nm) Vs Angle of Twist (rad) in linear

17
 Figure 8: Shear Stress (Pa) Vs Shear Strain

Sample Calculation :

1. Moment of Area / Polar Moment, J

1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π𝑟
1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π(0. 003)
−10 4
𝐽 = 1. 272345 × 10 𝑚

2. Angle of Twist, ϕ (degree to rad)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 62

360
∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 62
= 5.81°

π
∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 x 180

π
∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 5.81° x 180

∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.1014 rad

3. Shear Stress, τ

Torque, T = 71.40 Nm
(𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒,𝑇) 𝑥 (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠,𝑅)
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, τ = (𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎,𝐽)

18
 τ=
71.40𝑁𝑚 ( 0.006𝑚
2 )
−10 4
1.272345 ×10 𝑚
τ = 1683505653 𝑃𝑎
Converting Pa to Mpa, thus shear stress,τ :
τ = 1683 𝑀𝑃𝑎

4. Shear strain, γ

𝑅θ
γ= 𝐿
(0.003)(0.1014)
γ= (0.07148)
γ = 0.004256

5. Modulus of rigidity, G

τ
𝐺= γ

1683505653
𝐺= 0.004256
11
𝐺 = 3.95561 x 103.9556 x 10 Pa

6. Percentage error, %

9
Theoretical value G (mild steel) = 78 x 10 Pa

( 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ) − ( 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ( 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 )
× 100%

11 9
( 3.9556 𝑥 10 ) − ( 78 𝑥 10 )
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 9 × 100%
( 78 𝑥 10 )

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 407.1 %

19
Engku Aisyah Nuha Binti Engku Muhammad Faiz (2021887278)

SAMPLE OF CALCULATION
4
1. Polar moment of inertia, J (𝑚 ) :
1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π𝑟
1 4
𝐽 = ( 2 )π(0. 003)
−10 4
𝐽 = 1. 27 × 10 𝑚

2. Angle of twist, ∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 :

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 62

1080
∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 62
= 17.42°

π
∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 x 180

π
∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 17.42° x 180

∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.304 rad

3. Shear stress, τ (Pa) :

𝑇𝑅
τ= 𝐽

(112.60)(0.003)
τ= −10
(1.27 𝑥 10 )

τ = 2659842520 Pa

4. Shear strain, γ :
𝑅∅𝑟𝑎𝑑
γ= 𝐿

(0.003)(0.304)
γ= 0.07148

γ = 0.01276

5. Modulus of rigidity, G (Pa) :

τ
G= γ

20
 2659842520
G= 0.01276

11
G = 2.0845 x 10 Pa
6. Percentage error (%) :
9
Theoretical value G (mild steel) = 78 x 10 Pa
(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) − (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
Percentage error = (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
× 100%
11 9
(2.0845 𝑥 10 )−(78 𝑥 10 )
Percentage error = 9 x 100%
78 𝑥 10

Percentage error = 167.24%

Figure 9: Torque (Nm) versus Angle of Twist (rad)

21
 Figure 10: Shear Stress (Pa) versus Shear Strain

Amyza binti Mohamad Isa (2021849914)

1. Polar moment of inertia, 𝐽 (m⁴)

1
𝐽 = ( 2 ) Π𝑟⁴
1
𝐽 = ( 2 ) Π(0. 003)⁴
𝐽 = 1.27 x 10⁻¹⁰ 𝑚⁴

2. Angle of twist, Φ (𝑟𝑎𝑑)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 62

3240
∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 62
= 52.25°
π
∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∅𝑑𝑒𝑔 x 180

π
∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 52.25° x 180

∅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.912 𝑟𝑎𝑑

3. Shear stress, τ (Pa)

𝑇𝑅
τ= 𝐽

(116.65)(0.003)
τ= −10
(1.27 𝑥 10 )

τ = 2755511811 Pa

4. Shear strain, γ
𝑅∅𝑟𝑎𝑑
γ= 𝐿

(0.003)(0.912)
γ= 0.07148

γ = 0.03828
5. Modulus rigidity, G (Pa)
τ
G= γ

22
 2755511811
G= 0.03828

10
G = 7.198 x 10 Pa

6. Percentage error (%)

9
Theoretical value G (mild steel) = 78 x 10 Pa

(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) − (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)

Percentage error = (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
× 100%
10 9
(7.198 𝑥 10 )−(78 𝑥 10 )
Percentage error = 9 x 100%
78 𝑥 10

Percentage error = 0.077 %

Figure 11: Graph of torque (Nm) vs Angle of twist (rad)

23
Figure 12: Graph of shear stress vs Shear strain

24
Discussion

Adib Syafiqa binti Mohammad Saufi (2021886242)

The experiment was carried out safely utilising a mild steel specimen that measured
0.07148 metres in length and 0.006 metres in diameter. By calculating the maximum shear
stress before fracture, the torsion test is being applied to study the relationship between the
torque and the angle of twist based on the experiment. The outcomes seem to indicate that the
experiment's goal was successfully accomplished. According to the findings, the
experimentally determined modulus of stiffness is from the graph's linear portion. The elastic
coefficient known as the modulus of rigidity is used when a shear force is applied because of
lateral deformation that took place and could endure the resistance to torsional force. The
modulus of rigidity, G, may be used to determine the discrepancies between the theoretical
and actual values of this experiment. For instance, the theoretical value of G for mild steel is
roughly 79 GPa, and when compared to the experimental G, Gexperimental using the
percentage error recorded an error around 36.2%. This error is reasonably good for the
experiment because it would not disrupt the calculation and data tabulation. By ensuring that
the dial gauge scales and the hand pulley started from zero, we could prevent the zero error
and remedy the mistakes. In order for the experiment to proceed smoothly, the equipment has
to be in good shape.

When a torque is applied to a shear force, an angle of twist results, which would strain
the material until it fractured. When a specimen could not withstand an excessive amount of
external stress, the specimen fractured, disrupting its structure and resulting in a visible crack
or change in form. Mild steel has a high G rating because it has strong tensile strength and
high impact strength based on its typical qualities. The structure will be more stiff the greater
the rigidity modulus. The structure is more ductile as a result, and it fractured after
undergoing maximum shear stress.

Next, according to Hooke's Law, the strain on an elastic object is inversely

proportional to the stress applied. In this experiment, it is evident from the torque versus

25
angle of twist graph that the shear stress followed the Hooke Law for a brief period of time
before reaching its maximum value as shown in the graph.

This experiment was conducted in compliance with standards set by the industry. All
standardised procedures are gradually used in order to lower the experiment's error rate. The
equipment is set up exactly, and the measurement of the used specimen is precise. All the
readings are set to zero to provide a perfect outcome. It is necessary to carry out this
experiment in accordance with the guidelines specified in the standard in order to guarantee
that the findings collected are accurate.

26
Dayang Fazera Binti Awang Simon (2021814944)

Figure 13: Typical Stress-Strain Curve

The relationship between strain and stress for certain materials at particular
parameters, such as temperature and pressure, is specifically shown by the stress-strain curve.
As we learn in course Mechanics of Materials, the stress is equal to force applied per
cross-sectional area and strain is expressed in units of length over length and it's the amount
of deformation that occurs as a result of the stress. However, the graph's line might change
significantly depending on the properties of the material. As for this experiment, the materials
we used is mild steel with a manufacturer modulus of elasticity, G value is constant 210 GPa
9
or 78 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎. The physical characteristics of mild steel are high impact resistance, high
tensile resistance, good ductility, and weldability and a magnetic metal because it contains
ferrite. From all the data recorded, a plotted graph of Torque (Nm) against angle of twist
(rads) has been plotted.

27
 Figure 14: Torque (Nm) - Angle of Twist (rad) curve

According to typical stress-strain curves, the graph started with rises in a linear line.
Therefore, we could determine Young's modulus, also known as the modulus of elasticity,
along this linear portion. It is merely the difference between the rise in stress and the fall in
strain. By extracting and applying the same concept to the experimental data of Torque-angle
of twist curve, the pinpoint of yield strength is at coordinate (106.2, 0.152). Hence, by using
data experiments beginning until 5, plotted linear graphs of Torque against angle of twist in
rads can be obtained as follows and the modulus of elasticity can be calculated.

Figure 15: Torque (Nm)-Angle of Twist (rads) linear

28
 Hence, as shown in sample calculation of determining modulus of elasticity from the
linear line, the gradient of the linear line obtained is 694. 7368 and therefore, the modulus of
11
elasticity experimental value obtained from the graph is 390.3 GPa and 1.07175 x 10 Pa
from data calculation. Comparing between the manufacturer modulus of elasticity value is
9
210 GPa or 78 × 10 Pa respectively between experimental values from graph and data of
the modulus of elasticity by using an indicator of -86% and -0.86% error obtained
respectively leads to conclusion that multiple discrepancies have occurred.

Next, maybe systematic error, random error, and human error could happen during
experimental procedure. We might have made a mistake when reading the torque metre
because we suggested reading the value concurrently with the rotation. The torque meter's
reading may vary quickly, therefore we must be vigilant and take the reading quickly which
resulted in incorrect experimental data. Human error may have happened as a result of our
poor procedure. We might have erred when reading the scale or not doing a proper
standardisation absolute 0 before starting the experiment. Systematic error might occur when
there might be zero error in the vernier calliper scale. Due to a quick shift in the experimental
conditions, random error may arise. The specimen might have been subjected to unfavourable
and inappropriate humidity and temperature which are uncontrollable variables.

Figure 16: Experimental Shear Strain (MPa)-Shear strain linear

The experiment definitely obeyed Hooke’s Law and since the linear plotted graph
experimental values are similar with the linear portion of typical stress-strain curve. The yield

29
value of the shearing stress at the yield point obtained from the 5th data row at 0.00638 falls
on 250.4 MPa as shown in the graph which is 32% differs from the actual value yield strength
of mild steel at 370MPa. Furthermore, the fracture of our specimen prone to brittle fracture
causes the progressive expansion and coalescence of voids large enough to be seen in an
optical microscope does not lead to the fibrous fracture of mild steel specimen. The mild steel
specimen weakens under further stress, and necking may frequently happen. When
compression on the mild steel specimen is not uniformly distributed over its length, it is
termed to be necking. It will initially twist completely and will reach the Ultimate Strength.
However, as we continue to exert force, the nearly fracture area will abruptly become more
stressed than the rest of the specimen. Fracture occurs instantaneously with little warning
where the microcracks begin to crack and final fracture happening at the length of 0.01028 m
quickly follows.

Lastly, the experiment fully follows the standard experiment of torsion tests since the
apparatus used are following the common torsion test standard. We are also making a set of
techniques to methodically examine a hypothesis known as experimental design. A thorough
understanding of the system of torsion testing procedures is necessary for a successful
experimental data to be obtained. An experiment's design includes these five essential steps
where we evaluate the variables available and their relationships. Next, we create a precise,
making sure the hypotheses are all verifiable hypotheses.We also make sure subjects should
be divided into groupings, either within or between subjects. Prepare a plan for measuring
your dependent variable.

30
Anis Fadhilla Binti Azhar (2021859022)

In this experiment the modulus of rigidity has been obtained from the graph of Torque, T
11
against angle of twist (rads) where the Gexp obtained 3.9556 x 10 Pa while the theoretical
9
value is Gtheory 78 x 10 Pa with percentage error 407.1 %. When comparing the difference to
the mistake percentage, it is rather large and could be the result of multiple errors. The
inaccuracies might have happened as a result of incorrect zero error checks performed before
readings. In addition, the machine could produce different results that are less accurate if the
sample was not properly inserted into it. As a result, the manual handwheel is handled
slightly incorrectly, leading to imprecise incremental rotations that significantly affect the
load and angle of twist. Use of a digital torsion test device would greatly eliminate this error.
The dial gauge may exhibit parallax error if the gauge measurement is repeatedly reset to
zero. A digital dial gauge would be able to fix this error.

The plot of torque versus angle of twist in this experiment are obeying Hooke's Law. It can be
shown when the torque increases, then the angle of twist also increases until it reaches the
torque maximum point. The yield point is also obtained from the graph at point (106.2,
0.152) with shear stress 2504037820 Pa. The value acceptable as it is the common value
recorded for the sample used. The torsion test shows that when the sample reaches the
fracture point, it splits in two. The specimen goes through a necking phase before the actual
fracture happens and makes the brittle fracture.

Lastly, this experiment fully follows the procedure to carry out the torsion test experiment.
Although, to reduce the number of errors in the experiment, all standardised processes are
implemented step by step. The machine is perfectly set up, and the specimen utilised is
measured accurately. To achieve a good result, all the readings are set to zero. To ensure that
the results obtained are correct, it is required to conduct this experiment according to the
parameters provided in the standard.

31
Engku Aisyah Nuha Binti Engku Muhammad Faiz (2021887278)

The experimental shear modulus, 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑝, from the torsion test experiment is 2.0845 x
11
10 Pa. The experimental 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑝 has an error rate of 167.24% when compared to the

theoretical value of 78 GPa. The fact that the value of 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑝 is inaccurate and outside of the

acceptable margin of error may be mostly attributable to the looseness and high accuracy of
the revolution handwheel. The manual handwheel is handled somewhat incorrectly as a
result, resulting in inaccurate incremental rotations that have a substantial impact on the load
and angle of twist. A digital torsion test device should be used to considerably reduce this
mistake. Repeatedly changing the gauge measurement back to zero also might cause parallax
inaccuracy on the dial gauge. This mistake could be fixed with a digital dial gauge.
The specimen's surface fracture is flat and evenly sharp. This is because the fracture
occurred suddenly. Despite the fact that mild steel is a ductile material, the specimen's
fracture was a brittle fracture, occurring on the specimen's cross section and leaving both
fractured ends with a crisp, flat surface. This demonstrates how little reinforcing is needed for
mild steel because of its low carbon content resulting in a brittle fracture. Higher reinforcing
levels in a higher carbon steel would result in a ductile fracture. Graphs show that mild steel
continues to follow Hooke's Law, which states that force exerted is proportional to strain. At
the yield point, the shear stress is 2616035745 Pa. The specimen has warped plastically and is
no longer able to return to its former shape, as evidenced by the decreased shear stress in the
recorded measurements up to that point.
The given labsheet was followed while doing this experiment. All standardised
procedures are eventually used in order to lower the experiment's error rate. The equipment is
set up correctly, and the measurement of the used specimen is precise. All the readings are set
to zero to provide a perfect outcome. It is necessary to carry out this experiment in
accordance with the guidelines specified in the standard in order to guarantee that the
findings collected are accurate.

32
Amyza binti Mohamad Isa (2021849914)

The torsion experiment has been conducted by using mild steel specimens with a
length of 0.07148 m. Based on the experiment, the torsion test is being used to investigate
the relationship between the torque with the angle of twist by determining the maximum
shear stress before the specimen starts to fracture. This shows that the objective of the
experiment has been achieved successfully. The torsion test experiment produced an
experimental shear modulus, G experiment of 0.7198 GPa. Experimental shear modulus, G
experiment compared to the theoretical value of 78 GPa. The differences between the
theoretical and experimental value of this experiment can be obtained from modulus of
rigidity, G. The theoretical value of G for mild steel is near to 78x109 Pa.

Angle of twist is produced when a torque is applied to shear force and it will cause
deformation on the specimen until the specimen starts to fracture. Fracture happened when
the specimen could not resist the excessive external force applied thus, causing the disruption
to the structure of the specimen, and creating the visible crack or change in shape on the
specimen.

Mild steel has a high G value based on its typical qualities, which include strong
tensile strength and impact strength. The greater the rigidity modulus, the more rigid the
structure. As a result, the structure is more ductile and fractured after going through
maximum stress. Hooke’s Law stated that the strain of an elastic object is proportional to the
stress applied and from this experiment, it can be seen from the graph of torque against angle
of twist that it followed the rules of Hooke’s law briefly until it reached maximum shear.

33
Conclusion

Adib Syafiqa binti Mohammad Saufi (20211886242)

To conclude, this experiment achieved its goals because the difference between
theoretical and actual values is not substantial. Just 36.2% separate the theoretical and
experimental values, a discrepancy that may be further reduced by removing mistakes from
the experiment as a whole. The specimen's modulus of rigidity (G) may be determined from
the graph's slope of shear stress versus shear strain or by using formula. Actual maximum
shear stress values are only slightly different from experimental values. The angle of twist
increased linearly with torque prior to the yield point, proving that Hooke's Law governs the
relationship between torque and angle of twist. Finally, it was established what kind of
fracture surface mild steel rods experienced under pure torque. The data between
experimental and theoretical values had been examined, and all parts of the experiment were
carried out in accordance with the experimental procedure. In the end, the experiment was
successful.

34
Dayang Fazera Binti Awang Simon (2021814944)

The specimen will linearly stretch or compress as we apply Torque until it fails or
known as reaching its breaking point. Since brittle materials such as mild steel can hardly
deform without breaking, they frequently have a steeper slope as well. I believed it to be
logical that a material would be weaker if it were continually strained or distorted which is
also known as plastic deformation phase with modulus of elasticity obtained as 390.3 GPa or
11
1.07175 x 10 Pa. As a result, the slope following the yield strength is 250.4MPa is slightly
downward as shown in the plotted graph of torque-angle of twist curve. However, the
stress-strain curve shows an increasing slope after a brief dip following the yield strength. In
fact, this is typical of brittle material such as mild steel. A material's strength can be up to a
certain point increased by plastically stretching or deforming it. We refer to this as strain
hardening. As for the mild steel specimen to be stressed after necking, there is truly only one
outcome where the specimen failure or fracture occurred at length 0.01028 m. Since the
experimental data graph obeyed Hooke’s Law and the yield strength differs with actual value
is only 33%, therefore, our experiment was considered a success.

35
Anis Fadhilla Binti Azhar (2021859022)

The shear modulus of a material is determined using the torsion test and the experiment
conducted is considered a success as the objective has been met. It is the relationship between
torque and twist angle. In engineering applications, torsion is an important type of loading
that can result in critical stresses which are shear stresses created during torsion. Then, the
rigidity modulus, G. (MPa), is the measure of stiffness under shear stress. It is also known as
shear modulus. Also, torsion tests are used to identify the behaviour that a material or test
sample exhibits when twisted or tested for torsional forces as a result of applied moments that
produce shear stress about the axis. The yield shear strength, torsional fatigue life, ductility,
ultimate shear strength, and modulus of rupture in shear are all measurable values.
Furthermore, The engineer may identify an appropriate material that will have the required
torsional strength and contribute to the goal of lightweighting by using torsional testing. In
engineering also, by testing their products in torsion, manufacturers are able to simulate real
life service conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and ensure proper
manufacturing techniques.

In this experiment, the modulus of rigidity has been obtained from the graph of Torque, T
11
against angle of twist (rads) where the Gexp obtained 3.9556 x 10 Pa while the theoretical
9
value is Gtheory 78 x 10 Pa with percentage error 407.1%. Other than that, the angle of twist
is directly proportional with torque, demonstrating that the relationship between torque and
angle of twist obeys Hooke’s Law. Lastly, the type of fracture surface of mild steel rods under
pure torque was determined. The data between experimental and theoretical values had been
checked, and all parts of the experiment had been carried out according to the experimental
technique. Hence, the experiment was a success in the end.

36
Engku Aisyah Nuha Binti Engku Muhammad Faiz (2021887278)

The torsion test is a crucial mechanical test that focuses on how a material responds to
shear stress. Shear strength, ductility, and modulus of elasticity of a material may all be
assessed with this test. Engineers need these qualities in order to build structures, choose
materials, and make knowledgeable choices about how to use those materials. The outcomes
of a torsion test are dependent on a number of variables, including the qualities of the
material being tested, the testing environment, and the test data. The material is considered
fragile if the specimen fractures before applying the maximum torque. This indicates that just
a little amount of deformation is possible before the material breaks. Brittle materials are
frequently employed in high strength applications, such as cutting tools, but they are
unsuitable for applications requiring ductility, such as structures subjected to heavy impact or
cyclic loads. On the other hand, a material can be considered ductile if it can withstand the
maximum torque without breaking. Ductile materials are perfect for applications that need
toughness and longevity, such as in building and manufacturing, since they can bend
extensively under shear stress without breaking. The torque and angle of twist measured
during the test may be used to calculate the material's shear strength, ductility, and modulus
of shear. These characteristics offer useful guidance for choosing materials and developing
structures that can resist the particular stresses and environmental conditions they are subject
to. To conclude, the torsion test is an important mechanical test that elaborates on how a
material responds to shear stress. The conclusions from this experiment can aid in the design
of buildings, the choice of materials, and the application of materials by engineers. They can
guarantee that structures are secure, strong, and able to handle the loads and environments
they are subjected to by knowing a material's shear modulus, shear strength, and ductility.

37
Amyza binti Mohamad Isa (2021849914)

In conclusion, this experiment met its objectives. The findings revealed the modulus
of rigidity, G value, as well as the maximum shear stress. The displayed graph shows that
torque and angle of twist are exactly related to each other. The difference between theoretical
and experimental values is just 0.77%, which can be further lowered by eliminating errors
throughout the experiment. The form of the graph is important, especially when identifying
points like the elastic point, maximum torque, and fracture point. However, certain changes to
the experiment might be made to produce a more accurate result.

38
References

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). “Standard Test Method for Shear
Modulus at Room Temperature.” ASTM International, 29 July 2022,
https://www.astm.org/e0143-20.html. Accessed 15 April 2023.
Angle of twist: Definition, Formula, Units, Examples [with Pdf] - Mech Content.

24 November 2021, https://mechcontent.com/angle-of-twist/ . Accessed 20

April 2023.

Mild Steel - All You Need to Know | Fractory. (2020, January 24). Fractory.

https://fractory.com/what-is-mild-steel/#:~:text=Physical%20Properties%20of%20Mil

d%20Steel,-Its%20impressive%20properties&text=High%20impact%20strength,malle

ability%20with%20cold%2Dforming%20possibilities

Modak, A. (2023, January 10). Are You Familiar With Mild Steel Properties? ThePipingMart

Blog; The Piping Mart.

https://blog.thepipingmart.com/metals/are-you-familiar-with-mild-steel-properties

‌“Torsion Test.” (n.d.). TestResources,

https://www.testresources.net/applications/test-types/torsion-test/. Accessed 20 April

2023.

Stress-Strain Curve. (2018, August 19). Engineering Success.

https://www.engrsuccess.com/engineering-toolbox/stress-strain-curve/

Mechanics of Materials: Torsion » Mechanics of Slender Structures. (n.d.). Boston

University. Retrieved April 20, 2023, from

https://www.bu.edu/moss/mechanics-of-materials-torsion/

39
Appendix

Figure 17-22: Apparatus of Torsion test Experiment

40