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KAPASA MAKASA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND EDUCATION
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) DEPARTMENT

Introduction to Network Design

and Administration
 Unit 1: Introduction to Network
Design and Administration
• OVERVIEW
• Define network administration
• Know the scope of network administration
• State the goals of system administration
• Understand the challenges of system
administration
• State the Meta principles of system
administration .
 What is network and system
administration?
• Network and system administration is a branch of
engineering that concerns the operational
management of human–computer systems.
• It is about putting together a network of computers
(workstations, PCs and supercomputers), getting them
running and then keeping them running
• in spite of the activities of users who tend to cause the
systems to fail.
• A system administrator works for users, so that they
can use the system to produce work.
• However, a system administrator should not just cater
for one or two selfish needs, but also
• work for the benefit of a whole community.
 What is network and system
administration? Cont..
• Today, that community is a global community of machines
and organizations, which spans every niche of human
society and culture, thanks to the Internet.
• It is often a difficult balancing act to determine the best
policy, which accounts for the different needs of everyone
with a stake in a system.
• Once a computer is attached to the Internet, we have to
consider the consequences of being directly connected to
all the other computers in the world.
• In the future, improvements in technology might render
system administration a somewhat easier task – one of
pure resource administration – but, today, system
administration is not just an administrative job, it is an
extremely demanding engineer’s job
 What is network and system
administration? Cont..
• It’s about hardware, software, user support, diagnosis, repair
and prevention. System administrators need to know a bit of
everything: the skills are technical, administrative and socio-
psychological.
• The terms network administration and system
administration exist separately and are used both variously
and inconsistently by industry and by academics.
• System administration is the term used traditionally by
mainframe and Unix engineers to describe the management
of computers whether they are coupled by a network or not.
• To this
• community, network administration means the management
of network infrastructure devices (routers and switches).
 What is network and system
administration? Cont..
• The world of personal computers (PCs) has no tradition of
managing individual computers and their subsystems, and
thus does not speak of system administration, per se.
• To this community, network administration is the
management of PCs in a network. In this material, we shall
take the first view, since this is more precise.
• Network and system administration are increasingly
challenging. The complexity of computer systems is increasing
all the time.
• Even a single PC today, running Windows NT, and attached to
a network, approaches the level of complexity that mainframe
computers had ten years ago.
• We are now forced to think systems not just computers.
 Scope of Network administration
• The management of a network, usually called network
administration, consists of procedures and services that keep
the network running properly.
• An important part of network management entails making
sure that the network is available (or up and running as IT
professionals say) when employees and managers need it.
• Other admin activities are:
• - Monitoring the network capacity to ensure that all
transmission requirements can be met.
• - Adding capacity to the network by increasing band width
interconnecting additional modes,or creating and
interconnecting additional networks.
 Scope of Network administration
conti..
• - Training people to use the network effectively
• - Assisting IT professionals in organizational applications that
will make good use of the network’s capabilities.
• Backing up the network software and data regularly to protect
against the failure of network or any of its components
• - Putting security procedures in place to make certain that
only authorized users have access to the network and
ensuring that all security procedures are followed
• - Making sure the network personnel can respond quickly and
effectively in the event of a network operational or security
failure.
• - Diagnosing and troubleshooting problems on the network
and determining the best course of action to take to solve
 The goal of Network administration
• The goal is to keep the network running properly and
configuring and managing services that are provided over the
network.
• There are many services that we use regularly. There are
some which work in the background enabling other services
to run smoothly.
 The challenges of system
administration
• System administration is not just about installing operating
systems.
• It is about planning and designing an efficient community of
computers so that real users will be able to get their jobs
done.
• That means:
• Designing a network which is logical and efficient.
• Deploying large numbers of machines which can be easily
upgraded later.
• Deciding what services are needed.
• Planning and implementing adequate security.
• Providing a comfortable environment for users.
 The challenges of system
administration
• Developing ways of fixing errors and problems which occur.
• Keeping track of and understanding how to use the enormous
amount of knowledge which increases every year.
• Some system administrators are responsible for both the
hardware of the network and the
• computers which it connects, i.e. the cables as well as the
computers. Some are only
• responsible for the computers. Either way, an understanding
of how data flow from machine to
• machine is essential as well as an understanding of how each
machine affects every other
 The Meta principles of system
administration
• Many of the principles in this course material derive from a
single overriding issue:
• they address the predictability of a system.
• The term system clearly implies an operation that is
systematic, or predictable – but, unlike simple mechanical
systems, like say a clock, computers interact with humans in a
complex cycle of feedback, where uncertainty can enter at
many levels.
• That makes human–computer systems difficult to predict,
unless we somehow fix the boundaries of what is allowed, as
a matter of policy.
 Summary
• Network and system administration is a branch of
engineering that concerns the operational management of
human–computer systems.
• System administration is not just about installing operating
systems.
• It is about planning and designing an efficient community of
computers so that real users will be able to get their jobs
done.
• System administration begins with a policy – a decision about
what we want and what should be, in relation to what we can
afford.
• Policy speaks of what we wish to accomplish with the system,
and what we are willing to tolerate of behavior within it.
• To study this subject, we need to cultivate a way of thinking which embodies a
basic scientific humility and some core principles:.
 Tutorials
• MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
• State the top-most principles that guide network and system
administrators
• What kinds of issues does system administration cover?
• State the meta principles of system administration
• What are the challenges of system administration?
 UNIT 2: NETWORK STRUCTURE
• At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• To name the four basic network topologies
• To cite advantages and disadvantages of each
type
• State the criteria necessary for an effective
and efficient network
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY

• A computer network is a system that connects numerous

independent computers in order to share information
(data) and resources
• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a
network is laid out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation
of the relationship of all the links and linking devices
(usually called nodes) to one another
• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus
and ring .
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont…
• Mesh
• In a mesh topology, every device has a
dedicated point to point link to every other
device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries
traffic only between the devices it connects.
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont…
• Mesh
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies.
• First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection
can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems
that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
• Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes
unavailable it does not incapacitate the entire system.
• Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. Whenever
message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it.
• Finally, point to point links make fault identification and fault
isolation easy.
• Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems.
• This enables the network manger to discover the precise location
of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution..
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of
cabling and that of I/O ports required.
• First, because every device must be connected to every other
device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
• Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings or floors) can accommodate.
• Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and
cables) can be prohibitively expensive.
• For these reasons, a mesh topology is usually implemented in a
limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the main
computers of a hybrid network that can include several other
topologies
• One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of a
telephone regional office in which each regional office needs to
be connected to every other regional office.
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
• These devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a
mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange. If one device wants to send
data to another it sends the data to the controller, which then
relay the data to the other connected devices.
• A Star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star,
each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect to
any number of others
• This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less
calling needs to be housed, and additions, moves and deletions
involve only one connection between that device and the hub.
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Star Topology
• Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that
link is affected. All other remain active.
• This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor
link problems and bypass detective links.
• One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the
whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes
down, the whole system is dead.
• Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node
must be linked to a central hub.
• For this reason, often more cabling is registered in a star then in
some other topologies (such as ring or bus)
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Bus Topology
• A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone
to link all the devices in the network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A
drop line is a connection running between the device and the
main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat.
• Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and
farther. For this reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a
bus can support and on the distance between those taps.
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Bus Topology
• Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.
• Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path and then
connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this
way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
• Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
• A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation.
• It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation of quality
• In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission, even between devices on the same side of the
problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction
of origin, creating noise in both directions.
• Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point to point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device
receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is
linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or
logically).
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices).
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Hybrid Topology
• A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star
topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus
topology.
• A very good example is a tree topology. The topology of a tree is
similar to that of a star.
• Nodes in a tree, like those in a star, are connected to a central hub
that manages network traffic. It has a root node, which is
connected to all other nodes, producing a hierarchy.
• Hierarchical topology is another name for it. The number of Star
networks is connected via Bus in Tree Topology.
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Advantages and disadvantages of an hybrid network.
• Advantages:
• Network expansion is both possible and simple.
• We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that
are easier to manage and maintain.
• Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged
• Disadvantages
• Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its
basic structure, and if it fails, the entire network is handicapped.
• Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and
segments are added.
 Network Devices
• Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network
Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers,
are used in all networks.
• In addition, a mechanism of connecting these building parts is
necessary, which is usually galvanic cable and optical cable are
less popular (“optical fiber”)The following are the network
devices :.
 Network Devices
• NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known
as a network adapter or NIC (network interface card), is
computer hardware that enables computers to communicate via a
network.
• It offers physical access to networking media and, in many
cases, MAC addresses serve as a low-level addressing scheme.
• Each network interface card has a distinct identifier.
• This is stored on a chip that is attached to the card
 Network Devices
• Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a
signal, cleans it of unwanted noise, regenerates it,
• and retransmits it at a higher power level or to the opposite side
of an obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater distances
without degradation. In the majority of twisted pair Ethernet
networks,
• Repeaters are necessary for cable lengths longer than 100 meters
in some systems. Repeaters are based on physics.
 Network Devices
• Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pair or
fiber optic Ethernet devices to give the illusion as a formation of
a single network segment.
• The device can be visualized as a multiport repeater. A network
hub is a relatively simple broadcast device.
• Any packet entering any port is regenerated and broadcast out on
all other ports, and hubs do not control any of the traffic that
passes through them.
• Packet collisions occur as a result of every packet being sent out
through all other ports, substantially impeding the smooth flow of
communication.
Network Devices
 Network Devices
• Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not on the
one that received the transmission.
• Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are
reachable through specific ports rather than copying messages to
all ports as hubs do.
• Once a port and an address are associated, the bridge will only
transport traffic for that address to that port.
Network Devices
 Network Devices
• Switches
• A network switch connects devices within a network (often a
local area network, or LAN*) and forwards data packets to and
from those devices.
• Unlike a router, a switch only sends data to the single device it is
intended for (which may be another switch, a router, or a user's
computer), not to networks of multiple devices..
 Network Devices
• Switches
 Network Devices
• Routers
• A router is a device that connects two or more packet-switched
networks or subnetworks.
• It serves two primary functions: managing traffic between these
networks by forwarding data packets to their intended IP
addresses, and allowing multiple devices to use the same Internet
connection.
• There are several types of routers, but most routers pass data
between LANs (local area networks) and WANs (wide area
networks).
• A LAN is a group of connected devices restricted to a specific
geographic area. A LAN usually requires a single router.
• A WAN, by contrast, is a large network spread out over a vast
geographic area..
 Network Devices cont..
• Routers
• Large organizations and companies that operate in multiple
locations across the country, for instance, will need separate
LANs for each location, which then connect to the other LANs to
form a WAN.
• Because a WAN is distributed over a large area, it often
necessitates multiple routers and switches
• A network switch forwards data packets between groups of
devices in the same network, whereas a router forwards data
between different networks.
 Network Devices cont..
• Routers
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Conclusion
• In the context of a communication network, the term topology
refers to the very in which the end points, or stations attached to
the network are interconnected.
• Topologies are the important part of the network design theory.
• A better network can be built if you have the knowledge of these
topologies and if you know the difference between each topology.
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Summary
• Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network.
Devices may be arranged in a mesh, star, bus or ring topology.
• A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. The main
disadvantages of a mesh are the number of I/O ports required
• Star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. One big disadvantage
of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub.
• A bus topology is multipoint unlike mesh and star topologies that are point
to point connections. An advantage of a bus topology is ease of installation.
Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
• Ring topology is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. However,
unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
• Hybrid topology is complex which can be built of two or more above
networked topologies.
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY cont..
• Tutorials
• 1. For each of the following four networks, discuss the
consequences if a connection fails.
a) Five devices arranged in a bus topology
b) Five devices arranged in a ring topology
• 2. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links
required for a mesh, ring, bus and star topology?
• 3. Name the four basic networking topologies and cite on
advantage of each type.
Unit 2 cont... NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
• This unit looks at what constitutes a local area network (LAN),
then a wide area network (WAN) and then discusses the
differences between the two.
• We then discuss the technologies for implementing WAN.
1. Know about the categories of networks.
2. State the distinctions between LAN and WAN.
3. Understand the technologies used in implementing WAN.
 Categories of Networks / Network
Technologies
• Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to
two primary categories:
• Local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).
• The category into which a network falls is determined by its
size. A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 miles;
• a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in between are
normally referred to as metropolitan area networks (MANs) and
span tens of miles.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• One type of network that becomes ubiquitous is the local area
network. Indeed, LAN is to be found in virtually all medium and
large size office buildings.
• Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of
technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer
in someone’s home office; or it can extend throughout a company
and include audio and video peripherals.
• Currently LAN size is limited to a few kilometers. LANs are
designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can
include hardware (e.g. a printer), software (e.g. an application
program) or data
• In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of
networks by transmission media and topology.
• In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission
medium. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ringed star.
 Local Area Network (LAN) cont..
• Early LANS had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per seconds
(mbps) ranges. LANs come in a parallel of different configurations.
The most common is switched LANs and wireless LANs.
• The most switched LAN is a switched Ethernet LAN, which may
consist of a single switch with a parallel of attached devices, or
parallel of interconnected switches.
• Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 mbps. Wireless
LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long distance transmission of
data, image, audio, video information over large geographic area
that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole world.
• WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the
Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that a home computer to the
Internet.
• We normally refer to the first as a switched WAN and to the
second as a point to point WAN.
• The switched WAN connects the end systems which usually
comprise a router (internet – working connecting devices) that
connects together LAN or WAN.
• The point to point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone
or cable T.V provider that connects a home computer or a small
LAN to an Internet service provider (ISP).
 Wide Area Network (WAN) cont..
• This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.
Wireless WANs are become more and more popular.
• Traditionally, WANs have been implemented using one of two
technologies: Circuit switching and packet switching.
• More recently, frame relay and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
networks have assumed major roles.
 Circuit Switching
• In a circuit- switching network, a dedicated communications path
is established between two stations through the nodes of the
network.
• That path is a connected sequence of physical links between
nodes. On each link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection.
• Data generated by the source station are transmitted along the
dedicated path as rapidly as possible.
• At each mode, incoming data are routed or switched to the
appropriate outgoing channel without delay.
• The most common example of circuit switching is the telephone
network. .
 Packet Switching
• A quite different approach is used in a packet switching network.
• In this case, it is not necessary to dedicate transmission capacity
along a path through the network.
• Rather, data are sent out in a sequence of small chunks, called
packets.
• Each packet is passed through the network from node to node
along some path leading from source to destination.
• At each node, the entire packet is received, stored briefly, and
then transmitted to the next node.
• Packet switching networks are commonly used for terminal to
computer communications.
 Frame Relay
• Packet switching was developed at a time when digital long
distance transmission facilities exhibited a relatively high error rate
compared to today’s facilities.
• As a result, there is a considerable amount of overhead built into
packet switching schemes to compensate for errors.
• The overhead includes additional bits added to each packet to
introduce redundancy and additional processing at the end
stations and the intermediate switching nodes to detect and
recover from errors.
• With modern high-speed communication systems, this overhead is
unnecessary and counterproductive.
• It is unnecessary because the rate of errors has been dramatically
lowered and any remaining errors can easily be caught in the end
systems by logic that operates above the level of the packet-
switching logic.
 Frame Relay conti..
• It is counterproductive because the overhead involved soaks up a
significant fraction of the high capacity provided by the network.
• Frame relay was developed to take advantage of these high data
rates and low error rates whereas the original packet-switching
networks were designed with a data rate to the end user of about
64 kbps.
• Frame relay networks are designed to operate efficiently at user
data rate of up to 2mbps.
• The key to achieving these high data rates is to strip out most of
the overhead involved with errors control.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) .
• Sometimes referred to as cell relay is a culmination of
developments in circuit switching and packet switching.
• ATM can be viewed as an evolution from frame relay. The most
obvious difference between frame relay and ATM is that frame
relay uses variable length packets called frames and ATM uses
fixed length packets, called cells.
• As with frame relay, ATM provides little overhead for error control
depending on the inherent reliability of the transmission system
and on higher layers of logic in the end of systems to catch and
correct errors.
• By wiring a fixed packet length, the processing overhead is
reduced even further for ATM compared to frame relay.
• The result is that ATM is designed to work in the range of 10s and
100s of mbps and in the Gbps range.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
cont..
• ATM can also be viewed as an evolution from circuit switching;
only fixed-datarate circuits are available to the end system.
• ATM allows the definition of multiple virtual channels with date
rate that are dynamically defined at the time the virtual channel is
created.
• By using small, fixed-size cells, ATM is so efficient that it can offer a
contant-data rate channel even though it is using a packet-
switching technique.
• Thus ATM extends circuit switching to allow multiple channels
with the data rate on each channel dynamically set on demand.
Distinctions between LANs and WANs
• There are several key distinctions between LANs and WANs.
Among which are:
1. The scope of the LAN is small, typically a single building or a
cluster of buildings. This difference in geographic scope leads to
different technical solution.
2. It is usually the case that the LAN is owned by the same
organization that owns the attached devices. For WANs, this is
less often the case, or at least a significant fraction of the
network assets is not owned.
• This has two implications. First, care must be taken in the
• choice of LAN, because there may be a substantial capital
investment (compared to dial-up or leased charges of WANs) for
both purchase and maintenance.
• Second, the network management responsibility for a LAN falls
solely on the user.
3. The internal data rates of LANs are typically much greater than
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN
• A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and WAN. It
normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity,
normally to the Internet and have end points spread over a city or
part of a city.
• Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
• Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN or a WAN in isolation;
they are connected to one another.
• When two or more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork or internet.
 Summary
• In general terms, communications networks can be categorized as
local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).
• A LAN consists of a shared transmission medium and a set of
hardware and software for interfacing devices to the medium and
regulating the orderly access of the medium.
• LAN size is limited. In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from
other types of networks by their transmission media and topology.
A WAN provides long-distance transmission over large geographic
areas.
• WAN is often used to provide Internet access. Traditionally, WANs
have been implemented using one of two technologies: circuit
switching and packet switching.
• Wireless WANs are becoming more and more popular..
 Tutorial
• 1. What are the advantages of packed switching compared to
circuit switching?
• 2. What are some of the factors that determine whether a
communication system is LAN or WAN?
• 3. Outline the distinctions between LAN and WAN.
• 4. Discuss circuit-switching network. .
 Unit 3: PROTOCOLS, PACKETS AND
STANDARDS
• This unit discusses packets and protocols which are the
fundamental building blocks of data transmission over the network.
• At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1) State why are protocols and standards needed?
2) State the function of a packet.
3) State the principal function of protocols in a network.
4) Understand the layered approach to computer communications.
5) Discuss some of the different protocols and their uses.
6) State how protocols work.
7) State the advantages and disadvantages of standards.
 PROTOCOLS, PACKETS AND
STANDARD
• All data that is transmitted across the network is put into
packets containing information about the source and
destination of the data.
• These packets are created using standards or protocols.
• Since there are many different network configurations, there
are many different protocols.
• By having a variety of protocols, you can choose the one that
best fulfills the needs of your network.
 Function of packets
• The function of a packet is to carry data from one point to
another. Protocols require that packet contain some basic
information about their source and their destination and in
many cases, protocols require that the packet include a
checksum.
• A checksum is a number that can be used to verify that the
packet has been transferred across the network without being
• corrupted.
 Packet Structure
• The structure of the packet is extremely important. Useless a
packet is structured exactly as it is supposed to be;
• it is ignored by the receiving party and assumed to be
corrupted.
• Basic packet structure requires that the packet include a
header section, a data section, and in most cases, a 22 cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) section (also called a trailer).
• Not every protocol requires that a CRC be attached. .
 Packet Structure cont..
• Header
• The header section of a packet contains the routing
information.
• This information includes the source and destination of the
packet.
• The header also contains the number of the packet, which is
generated when the packet is created.
• In addition, the header can contain a protocol version
number, the length of the header, the type of service, the
length of the entire packet, the flags, the time to live, and
other information..
 Packet Structure cont..
• Data
• The data is the actual information that is being transmitted
over the network from one application to another. Each
protocol has a predefined maximum data size.
• If the data is larger than this maximum data size, the data is
broken into smaller pieces and transmitted in multiple
packets.
 Packet Structure cont..
• CRC
• A CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) is calculated prior to the data
being sent and attached to the bottom of a packet.
• At the destination, a new CRC is computed and compared to
the original to verify that the packet was not corrupted.
• A CRC is usually attached to the bottom of a packet, but some
protocols include CRC within the header.
 Creating packets
• Before data is transmitted across the network, it is broken into
smaller, more manageable pieces called packets.
• All packets are numbered so they can be put back together
when they reach their destination.
• The header, which contains the source address, destination
address, and packet number, along with other information, is
attached to the beginning of the packet.
• A CRC is then calculated and added to the end of the packet. .
 Encapsulation
• Encapsulation is the process of encoding data for transmitting
it across the network.
• Once a packet is created as described previously, in order for
the packet to be transmitted to its final destination, it may
need to use a protocol in addition to the one that it is
currently using.
• A header and CRC are then added to the newly created
packet.
• This packet is an encapsulated packet. Figure 1 illustrates an
encapsulated packet.
 Encapsulation Packet
• Figure 1 illustrates an encapsulated packet.
 Protocols
• In computer networking, communication occurs between entities in
different systems.
• An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information.
• However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each other
and expect to be understood.
• For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
• A protocol is a set of nodes that govern data communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated,
and when it is communicated.
• The key elements of protocol are syntax, semantics and timing. .
 Protocols cont…
• Syntax:
• The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data,
meaning the order in which they are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of
data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be
the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be
message itself.
 Protocols cont…
• Semantics:
• The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits.
• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action
is to be taken based on that interpretation?
• For example, does the address identify the route to be taken
or the final destination of the message?
 Protocols cont…
• Timing:
• The term timing refers to two characteristics: When data
should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
• For example, if a sender produces data of 100mbps and the
receiver can process data at only 1 mbps,
• the transmission will overload the receiver and some data
will be lost. ?
 How Protocols Work
• When an application first attempts to transfer data across the network,
the data is usually too
• large to be sent in a single transmission.
• To meet the need of networking, the protocol that governs the
transmission of the data first breaks the data into packets.
• The protocol numbers each of the packets so can later be put back
together when they arrive at their destination and transmits each of
the packets across the network.
• In addition to this numbering, information on the source, destination,
and the protocol used is added to the header of the packet.
• Header CRC Data 24 Protocols are the first software layer to receive
data that has been transmitted across the network.
• After all packets have been received, they are put back together using
the numbers
• that were placed in the header at the origin of the packet.
• Once the data has all been put back together, it can be used by the
application that the data was sent across the network to.
 Functions of protocols.
• The principal functions of protocols in a network are line access
and collision avoidance.
• Line access concerns how the sending device gains access the
network to send a message.
• Collision avoidance refers to managing message transmission so
that the messages do not collide with each other on the network.
• Other functions of protocols are to identify each device in the
communication path,
• to secure the attention of the other device, to verify correct
receipt of the transmitted message,
• to verify that a message requires transmission because it cannot
be correctly interpreted and to perform recovery when errors
occur. .
 The layered approach to computer
communications
• In order to enable two or more computers to communicate in a
meaningful manner, we must define with great care all aspects of the
communication process (i.e. we must define a ‘communications
protocol’).
• By way of a useful analogy, let us consider the situation in which the
director of a company in the UK wishes to communicate with a person
in another company located in China.
• The director may ask a secretary to put a call through and will provide
sufficient information for the secretary to identify the person who is to
be contacted.
• Here, the director will not give the actual phone number- it may be left
to the secretary to obtain this information.
• From this point, the director has no further involvement until the
phone connection is in place.
• The secretary will locate and dial the number and this will initiate
various electronic/software activities. .
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• Neither the director nor the secretary has any interest in knowing how
the electronic and software systems will route the call.
• It may be carried by electronic cables, fiber optic cables, or be routed
via a satellite.
• Additionally, it may use communications systems that route the call
across the Atlantic through the US and then across the Pacific Ocean,
or it may be routed in an easterly direction.
• These low-level issues are of little interest to the secretary – a number
is dialed and processes occur that result in a phone ringing in an office
somewhere in China.
• Hopefully, the intended recipient is available and the secretary notifies
the director.
• Both parties must now adopt/agree on a common language and must
exercise a degree of hand-shaking (in this sense we mean that only one
person should talk at any one time).
• Finally, at the end of the conversation, an acceptable convention is
used to bring the call to a conclusion..
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• All these issues form part of the ‘communications protocol’ that is
needed to enable a useful dialogue and it is important to note that the
elements that underpin the communication do not need to have any
knowledge of the overall purpose that they will serve.
• For example:
• The secretary does not necessarily know why the call is to be placed –
the information
• 1. exchange may be confidential to the company director and the
recipient of the phone call.
• 2. The keypad via which the secretary enters the phone number
converts the key presses into electrical signals.
• These signals are dispatched and initiate various routing actions.
However, the keypad is not involved in these actions – it serves a single
function.
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• 3. The director has no knowledge of the path taken by the ‘voice
signals’ as they are routed to China.
• Perhaps they pass via trans-oceanic cables or are beamed to an
orbiting satellite.
• 4. Any cables used during the conversation have no ‘knowledge’
of the meaning that will be placed on the digital signals that they
transmit.
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• The establishment of a communications protocol that enables
computers (and other digital systems) to communicate is, in
many ways, similar to the protocols used to support the sort of
phone conversation referred to in the above analogy (although
computer communications are perhaps more complex).
• To handle the design implementation and maintenance of such
systems, a ‘layered’ approach is adopted. In figure 2, we indicate
two computers that need to communicate.
• Perhaps, for example, an applications program running on Node
A wishes to send a data file to a similar program running on Node
B (just as in the same way the company director mentioned
above wishes to talk to a person in a remote location).
• In order to transmit the data a number of tasks must be
performed, and these are carried out by layers of software
located on both nodes.
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• Each layer carries out a number of specific tasks and directly
communicates with the immediately adjacent software layers.
• However, from a logical point of view each layer communicates
with a corresponding layer on the remote computer – i.e.
• corresponding software layers located on the two nodes have
similar/equivalent functionality.
• The lowest layer on either node is responsible for interfacing
with the physical interconnect.
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• Figure 2: An applications program on Node A wishes to send
data to an equivalent program
• on Node B
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• In order for Node A to transmit a data file to Node B, various events
must take place.
• For example:
• Node A must inform the communications network of the identity of
the destination system (Node B)
• Node A must ensure that Node B is prepared to receive the data.
• The file transfer applications program on Node A must ensure that the
file management program on the destination system is ready to accept
and store the file.
• If the file formats used on the two systems are incompatible, one or
other system must perform a format translation function.
• File transfer must be carried out in an orderly manner and in such a
way that the two communicating machines do not block other network
traffic.
• This will involve splitting the data file into packets (chunks) and
appending various information to each packet.
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• Node B provides acknowledgement of receipt.
• Node B reassembles the packet in other to reconstruct the
original data file
• Node B must attempt to detect any errors in data it has received.
In some cases Node B may be able to correct errors.
• In the case that secure transmission is required, the data may be
encrypted by Node A prior to transmission.
• Node B must then perform the reverse process.
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• To achieve this high degree of cooperation between computers,
the tasks are broken into subtasks that are implemented
individually using a layered approach.
• These layers form the data communication protocol architecture.
Example of such layer architectures are:
• the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, and the
Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
• Key advantages of a layered structure include:
 The layered approach to computer
communications cont..
• The complex communication protocol is divided into subtasks
and these are implemented within a layered structure. Each layer
has limited functionality and this ‘divide and conquer’ approach
facilitates the design and the implementation of the system.
• When changes are made to the communications protocol, only
certain relevant layers need to be modified/replaced.
• This makes it easier to upgrade software and undertake software
testing.
 Standards
• Are essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in
guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and processes.
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies and other service providers to ensure the
kind of interconnectivity necessary in today’s market place and in
international communication.
• Standards play an important role in our everyday lives and
facilitate the operation of products produced by different
manufacturers.
• For example:
 Standards cont..
• Countries adopt a standard type of mains plug and socket.
Without such a standard, we would find that we had to
continually rewire mains plugs or employ some form of adaptor.
• This provides an example of national standard.
• Car manufacturers adopt a standard for the relative placement of
the clutch, brake and accelerator pedals.
• This provides an example of global standard.
• Computers are equipped with standard interface sockets (e.g.
serial, parallel and USB) via which they are able to connect to
peripheral devices.
• This provides an example of global standard.
• Standards may come into being in various ways. For example:
 Standards cont..
• A standard may be established (imposed) by the company that
plays the most dominant role in any particular area.
• For example, the serial and parallel ports employed by today’s
PC were implemented on the earliest PCs introduced by IBM.
• They soon became standard for desktop computing
• A standard may gradually evolve
• A standard may be developed/defined by a committee of
experts.
 Standards cont..
• Although standardization can facilitate our use of technologies
and products, standards seldom reflect an optimal solution.
• For example, the VHS videotape format became a standard,
while other superior and equally cost-effective formats fell by the
wayside.
• Furthermore, in the case of standards developed by committees,
these often reflect many technological compromises and take
long periods to develop.
• Such standards are often out of date even before they are
released!
 Standards cont..
• From a computer user’s perspective, standards are extremely
important because they allow a combination of products from
different manufacturers to be used together.
• Standards ensure greater compatibility and interoperability
between various types of equipment and technologies.
• In data communications, standards provide guidelines to
manufacturers and service providers to ensure compatibility,
connectivity, and interoperability of technologies – an essential
• requirement in today’s global market.
• Key advantages of standards are:
 Standards cont..
• To ensure a large market for hardware or software products –
thus encouraging mass production:
• To allow products from different vendors to communicate, thus
giving customers more flexibility in the selection and use of
equipment.
• On the other hand, standards do have limitations:
• They tend to slow down technological change. This is due to the
fact that, in some cases, by the time a standard is developed,
subjected to scrutiny, reviewed, compromised and endorsed by
all concerned parties – and then disseminated, more efficient
technologies could have developed.
• Many standards may exist for the same thing. It is often difficult
to decide which standard will provide better compatibility and
remain in place for the greatest amount of time
 Standards cont..
• Many official computer-related standards are defined by the
following organizations:
• ANSI (America National Standards Institute)
• ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
• VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association).
 Standards cont..
• Car drivers generally use agreed signals when turning left or
right.
• Aero plane pilots follow specific standardized rules for
communicating throughout the world.
• Similarly, for any computer-based systems to communicate
successfully, they need to use ‘the same language’.
• This means that what is communicated, how it is communicated,
and when it is communicated must conform to some mutually
acceptable conventions agreed between the parties involved.
• These conventions are known as a ‘protocol’, which can be
defined as a set of rules governing the exchange of data between
two or more devices.
• Typical tasks performed by protocols are as follows:
 Standards cont..
• To make sure that the source device activates the data
communication line
• To inform the transmission system about the destination system.
• To make sure that the source device communicates with the
destination device before sending data
• To make sure the destination device is ready to accept the data
• To make sure that the destination file management system is
ready to store incoming files
• To ensure compatibility between source and destination, and to
perform format translation.
 Standards cont..
• In the 1980s, many companies entered the desktop computing
market and this led to a rich diversity of products.
• Unfortunately, these systems would often not operate together,
nor could software developed for use on one particular type of
machine necessarily be used on another.
• In short, although the lack of standards enabled product
diversity, it hampered computer usage.
• Quickly, standards were developed (and/or evolved) and these
impacted on many areas of computing.
• For example:
 Standards cont..
• Compatibility improved. By conformance to standards, hardware
and software systems developed by different manufacturers
could be used together (although there were often unforeseen
problems)
• The diversity of available products decreased
• Backwards compatibility became an important issue. For
example, a new model of computer, or a new release of an
operating system should support the function of older products.
• This has greatly increased hardware and software complexity and
retarded the development of radically new computer products.